1. 4
learning

2. why study learning? If we had not been able to learn, we would have died out as a species long ago. Learning is the process that allows us to adapt to the changing conditions of the world around us. We can alter our actions until we find the behavior that leads us to survival and rewards, and we can eliminate actions that have been unsuccessful in the past. Without learning, there would be no buildings, no agriculture, no lifesaving medicines, and no human civilization.

3. Learning Objectives LO 4.1 Learning LO 4.2 Classical conditioning
LO 4.3 Conditioned emotional response
LO 4.4 Operant conditioning: Thorndike and Skinner
LO 4.5 Important concepts in operant conditioning
LO 4.6 Schedules of reinforcement
LO 4.7 How does punishment differ from reinforcement?
LO 4.8 Problems associated with the use of punishment
LO 4.9 Factors limiting or enhancing operant conditioning
LO 4.10 Behavioral Techniques and Behavior Modification
LO 4.11 Cognitive learning theory
LO 4.12 Observational learning
LO 4.13 Real world example of use of conditioning

4. What is Learning? Learning Relatively permanent change in behavior
LO 5.1 Learning
Learning
Relatively permanent change in behavior
Brain physically changes in response to learning
Brought about by experience or practice
Any kind of change in the way an organism behaves is learning

5. Pavlov and Classical Conditioning
LO 5.2 Classical conditioning
Ivan Pavlov
Russian physiologist
Studied digestion in dogs
Dogs naturally salivate in response to food (reflex)
Pavlov’s dogs salivated in response to other stimuli as well

6. Pavlov and Classical Conditioning
LO 5.2 Classical conditioning
Ivan Pavlov
Labeled classical conditioning
Learning response to a stimulus other than the original
New response does not naturally occur in response to the stimulus, is learned

7. Dr. Ivan Pavlov and students working in his laboratory
Dr. Ivan Pavlov and students working in his laboratory. Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, was the first to study and write about the basic principles of classical conditioning.

8. Classical Conditioning Concepts
LO 5.2 Classical conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Naturally occurring stimulus
Leads to an involuntary response
Unconditioned:
“Unlearned” or “naturally occurring”
Unconditioned response (UCR)
Involuntary response to naturally occurring stimulus

9. Classical Conditioning Concepts
LO 5.2 Classical conditioning
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Stimulus is able to produce learned reflex response
Paired with the original unconditioned stimulus
Conditioned = “learned”
Neutral stimulus
Becomes conditioned stimulus when paired with an unconditioned stimulus

10. Classical Conditioning Concepts
LO 5.2 Classical conditioning
Conditioned response (CR)
Learned reflex response to a conditioned stimulus.
Sometimes called conditioned reflex

11. Figure Classical Conditioning Before conditioning takes place, the sound of the metronome does not cause salivation and is a neutral stimulus, or NS. During conditioning, the sound of the metronome occurs just before the presentation of the food, the UCS. The food causes salivation, the UCR. When conditioning has occurred after several pairings of the metronome with the food, the metronome will begin to elicit a salivation response from the dog without any food. This is learning, and the sound of the metronome is now a CS and the salivation to the bell is the CR.

12. Classical Conditioning Principles
LO 5.2 Classical conditioning
CS must come before UCS
CS and UCS must come very close together in time
Ideally, only several seconds apart
Neutral stimulus must be paired repeatedly with UCS before conditioning takes place
CS is usually a stimulus that is distinctive from other competing stimuli

13. Could this be you? The anxiety that many people feel while in the dentist’s office is a conditioned response, with the dentist’s chair and the smells of the office acting as conditioned stimuli.

14. Classical Conditioning Concepts
LO 5.2 Classical conditioning
Stimulus generalization
Respond to a stimulus similar to original conditioned stimulus with conditioned response
Stimulus discrimination
Not making a generalized response to similar stimulus
Similar stimulus was never paired with the unconditioned stimulus

15. Classical Conditioning Concepts
LO 5.2 Classical conditioning
Extinction
Disappearance/weakening of learned response
Follows removal or absence of the unconditioned stimulus (classical conditioning)
Removal of reinforcer (operant conditioning)

16. Figure Strength of the Generalized Response An example of stimulus generalization. The UCS was an electric shock and the UCR was the galvanic skin response (GSR), a measure associated with anxiety. The subjects had been conditioned originally to a CS tone (0) of a given frequency. When tested with the original tone, and with tones 1, 2, and 3 of differing frequencies, a clear generalization effect appeared. The closer the frequency of the test tone to the frequency of tone 0, the greater was the magnitude of the galvanic skin response to the tone (Hovland, 1937).

17. Classical Conditioning Concepts
LO 5.2 Classical conditioning
Spontaneous recovery
Reappearance of learned response after extinction
Response usually weak and short-lived
Higher-order conditioning
Strong conditioned stimulus is paired with a neutral stimulus
Neutral stimulus to become a second conditioned stimulus

18. Figure Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery This graph shows the acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, and reacquisition of a conditioned salivary response. Typically, the measure of conditioning is the number of drops of saliva elicited by the CS on each trial. Note that on the day following extinction, the first presentation of the CS elicits quite a large response.

19. Figure Higher-Order Conditioning In Stage 1, a strong salivation response is conditioned to occur to the sound of the metronome (CS1). In Stage 2, finger snapping (CS2) is repeatedly paired with the ticking of the metronome (CS1) until the dog begins to salivate to the finger snapping alone. This is called “higher-order conditioning,” because one CS is used to create another, “higher” CS.

20. Conditioned Emotional Response
LO 5.3 Conditioned emotional response
Emotional response classically conditioned to occur to learned stimuli
Examples:
Fear of dogs
Emotional reaction to seeing an attractive person, baby animals, etc.
May lead to phobias – irrational fear responses

21. Conditioned Emotional Response
LO 5.3 Conditioned emotional response
Vicarious conditioning
Classical conditioning acquired by watching the reaction of another person

22. Figure Conditioning of “Little Albert” After “Little Albert” had been conditioned to fear a white rat, he also demonstrated fear to a rabbit, a dog, and a sealskin coat (although it remains uncertain if stimulus generalization actually occurred as this fear was to a single rabbit, a single dog, etc.). Can you think of any emotional reactions you experience that might be classically conditioned emotional responses?

23. LO 5.3 Conditioned emotional response
Taste Aversion
LO 5.3 Conditioned emotional response
Conditioned taste aversion
Nausea or aversive response to a particular taste
Exposure to taste was followed by a aversive reaction

24. LO 5.3 Conditioned emotional response
Taste Aversion
LO 5.3 Conditioned emotional response
Conditioned taste aversion
Occurs after only one association
Biological preparedness
Animals learn associations with only one or few pairings
Survival value as animal could die with multiple tastings

25. Conditioned taste aversions in nature
Conditioned taste aversions in nature. This moth is not poisonous to birds, but the monarch butterfly whose coloring the moth imitates is quite poisonous. Birds find their food by vision and will not eat anything that resembles the monarch.

26. Why Classical Conditioning Works
LO 5.3 Conditioned emotional response
Stimulus substitution
Pavlov’s explanation
Conditioned stimulus (CS) becomes substitute for unconditioned stimulus (UCS) due to close pairing of two
Cognitive perspective
Conditioning occurs because CS provides information or expectancy about UCS forthcoming

27. LO 5.4 Operant conditioning: Thorndike and Skinner
Involves voluntary behavior
Learned through the effects of pleasant and unpleasant consequences to responses

28. LO 5.4 Operant conditioning: Thorndike and Skinner
Thorndike’s Law of Effect
If a response is followed by a pleasurable consequence, it will be repeated
If followed by an unpleasant consequence, it will tend not to be repeated

29. Skinner’s Contribution
LO 5.4 Operant conditioning: Thorndike and Skinner
Stressed the study of only observable, measurable behavior.
Operant conditioning
Voluntary behavior used to operate on the environment
Focus on the effects of the consequences of behavior

30. Figure A Typical Skinner Box This rat is learning to press the bar in the wall of the cage in order to get food (delivered a few pellets at a time in the food trough on lower left). In some cases, the light on the top left might be turned on to indicate that pressing the bar will lead to food or to warn of an impending shock delivered by the grate on the floor of the cage.

31. LO 5.5 Important concepts in operant conditioning
Reinforcement
LO 5.5 Important concepts in operant conditioning
Reinforcement
Event or stimulus following a response that increases the probability the response will occur again
Primary reinforcer
Reinforcer that meets a basic biological need
hunger, thirst, touch

32. LO 5.5 Important concepts in operant conditioning
Reinforcement
LO 5.5 Important concepts in operant conditioning
Reinforcement
Secondary reinforcer
Reinforcer associated with a primary reinforcer
praise, tokens, gold stars

33. Positive and Negative Reinforcement
LO 5.5 Important concepts in operant conditioning
Positive reinforcement
Pleasurable consequence follows response
Negative reinforcement
Removal of unpleasant stimulus increases response
Escape from, or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus.

34. Table 4.1 Comparing Two Kinds of Conditioning

35. Schedules of Reinforcement
LO 5.6 Schedules of reinforcement
Partial reinforcement effect
Response is reinforced after some, but not all, correct responses
Response tends to be resistant to extinction
Continuous reinforcement
Reinforcement of each and every correct response

36. Schedules of Reinforcement
LO 5.6 Schedules of reinforcement
Fixed ratio schedule
Number of responses required for reinforcement is always the same
Variable interval schedule
Interval of time must pass before reinforcement becomes possible
Amount of time different for each trial or event.

37. When people go fishing, they never know how long they may have to dangle the bait in the water before snagging a fish. This is an example of a variable interval schedule of reinforcement and explains why some people, such as this father and son, are reluctant to pack up and go home.

38. Schedules of Reinforcement
LO 5.6 Schedules of reinforcement
Fixed interval schedule
Interval of time that must pass before reinforcement becomes possible
Amount of time passing is always the same
Variable ratio schedule
Number of responses required for reinforcement is different for each trial or event.

39. Slot machines provide reinforcement in the form of money on a variable ratio schedule, making the use of these machines very addictive for many people. People don’t want to stop for fear the next pull of the lever will be that “magic” one that produces a jackpot.

40. Figure Schedules of Reinforcement These four graphs show the typical pattern of responding for both fixed and variable interval and ratio schedules of reinforcement. The responses are cumulative, which means new responses are added to those that come before, and all graphs begin after the learned pattern is well established. Slash marks mean that a reinforcement has been given. In both the fixed interval and fixed ratio graphs, there is a pause after each reinforcement as the learner briefly “rests.” The “scalloped” shape of the fixed interval curve is a typical indicator of this pause, as is the stair-step shape of the fixed ratio curve. In the variable interval and ratio schedules, no such pause occurs, because the reinforcements are unpredictable. Notice that both fixed and variable interval schedules are slower (less steep) than the two ratio schedules because of the need to respond as quickly as possible in the ratio schedules.

41. LO 5.7 How does punishment differ from reinforcement
Follows a response, making it less likely the response will happen again
Is the opposite of reinforcement
Punishment weakens responses, reinforcement strengthens responses

42. LO 5.7 How does punishment differ from reinforcement
Is the opposite of reinforcement
Punishment by application
The addition or experience of an unpleasant stimulus following a response
Punishment by removal
Removal of a pleasurable stimulus

43. This young man’s father is applying punishment by removal as he takes the car keys away from his son.

44. Table 4.3 Negative Reinforcement Versus Punishment by Removal

45. Problems with Punishment
LO 5.8 What are some problems with punishment
May cause punished to avoid the punisher instead of the behavior being punished
Wrong response is learned
Can encourage lying to avoid punishment

46. Problems with Punishment
LO 5.8 What are some problems with punishment
May create fear and anxiety
Emotions not conducive to learning
Hitting provides model for aggression
Behavior is being modeled by the punisher

47. How to Make Punishment More Effective
LO 5.8 What are some problems with punishment
Punishment should immediately follow the behavior it is meant to punish.
Punishment should be consistent.
Punishment of the wrong behavior should be paired, whenever possible, with reinforcement of the right behavior.

48. LO 5.9 How operant stimuli control behavior
Stimulus Control
LO 5.9 How operant stimuli control behavior
Discriminative stimulus
Provides organism a cue for making a certain response in order to obtain reinforcement

49. Operant Conditioning Concepts
LO 5.9 How operant stimuli control behavior
Shaping
Small steps toward goal behavior are reinforced until goal behavior is met
Successive approximations
The steps in behavior leading to a particular goal behavior

50. This dog has been trained to help its physically challenged owner
This dog has been trained to help its physically challenged owner. Operant conditioning principles can be used to train animals to do many useful tasks, including opening the refrigerator.

51. Operant Conditioning Concepts
LO 5.9 How operant stimuli control behavior
Extinction
Removal of reinforcement
Response drops out
Generalization
Response occurs with stimuli only similar to the original stimulus

52. One way to deal with a child’s temper tantrum is to ignore it
One way to deal with a child’s temper tantrum is to ignore it. The lack of reinforcement for the tantrum behavior will eventually result in extinction.

53. Operant Conditioning Concepts
LO 5.9 How operant stimuli control behavior
Spontaneous recovery
Reoccurrence of a once extinguished response
Same as with classical conditioning

54. Behavior Resistant to Conditioning
LO 5.9 How operant stimuli control behavior
Instinctive drift
Tendency for an animal’s behavior to revert to genetically controlled patterns after learning
Animals have genetically determined instinctive patterns of behavior
These instincts differ from species to species.
Some responses cannot be trained into an animal regardless of conditioning.

55. Raccoons commonly dunk their food in and out of water before eating
Raccoons commonly dunk their food in and out of water before eating. This “washing” behavior is controlled by instinct and is difficult to change even using operant techniques.

56. Applying Operant Conditioning
LO 5.10 Behavior modification
Behavior modification
Use of conditioning techniques to create changes in behavior
Token economy
Desired behavior is rewarded with tokens that can be exchanged for desired items or privileges

57. Applying Operant Conditioning
LO 5.10 Behavior modification
Time-out
Organism is being “removed” from opportunity to obtain positive reinforcement
Applied behavior analysis (ABA)
Uses shaping-skills broken into small steps
Prompts are removed over time

58. Biofeedback and Neurofeedback
LO 5.10 Behavior modification
Biofeedback
Use of feedback about biological conditions to bring involuntary responses under voluntary control
I.E.: blood pressure, heart rate
Neurofeedback
Form of biofeedback
Uses brain-scanning devices to provide feedback about brain activity

59. Cognitive Learning Theory
LO 5.11 Cognitive learning theory
1950s and 1960’s interest in cognition
Mental events that take place inside a person’s mind while behaving
View began to dominate experimental psychology
Key theorists:
Tolman, Kohler and Seligman

60. LO 5.11 Cognitive learning theory
Latent Learning
LO 5.11 Cognitive learning theory
Edward Tolman (1930)
Taught three groups of rats the same maze
Group 1
Rewarded each time at end of maze
Learned maze quickly

61. LO 5.11 Cognitive learning theory
Latent Learning
LO 5.11 Cognitive learning theory
Taught three groups of rats the same maze
Group 2
In maze every day; only rewarded on 10th day
Demonstrated learning almost immediately after receiving reward

62. LO 5.11 Cognitive learning theory
Latent Learning
LO 5.11 Cognitive learning theory
Taught three groups of rats the same maze
Group 3
Never rewarded
Did not learn maze well
Latent learning
Learning remains hidden until application is useful

63. Figure A Typical Maze This is an example of a maze such as the one used in Tolman’s experiments in latent learning. A rat is placed in the start box. The trial is over when the rat gets to the end box.

64. Figure Learning Curves for Three Groups of Rats In the results of the classic study of latent learning, Group 1 was rewarded on each day, while Group 2 was rewarded for the first time on Day 11. Group 3 was never rewarded. Note the immediate change in the behavior of Group 2 on Day 12 (Tolman & Honzik, 1930).

65. LO 5.11 Cognitive learning theory
Insight
LO 5.11 Cognitive learning theory
Kohler (1925)
Sudden perception of relationships among various parts of a problem
Allows solution to problem to come quickly
Cannot be gained through trial-and-error learning alone
“Aha” moment

66. Another of Köhler’s chimpanzees, Grande, has just solved the problem of how to get to the banana by stacking boxes. Does this meet the criteria for insight, or was it simple trial-and-error learning?

67. LO 5.11 Cognitive learning theory
Learned Helplessness
LO 5.11 Cognitive learning theory
Martin Seligman (1975)
Studied escape and avoidance learning
Noted dogs who had been unable to avoid shock did not avoid shock when opportunity became available

68. LO 5.11 Cognitive learning theory
Learned Helplessness
LO 5.11 Cognitive learning theory
Martin Seligman (1975)
Described learned helplessness as the tendency to fail to act to escape from a situation
History of repeated failures in the past creates belief that nothing can be done
Depression may result from learned helplessness

69. Figure Seligman’s Apparatus In Seligman’s studies of learned helplessness, dogs were placed in a two-sided box. Dogs that had no prior experience with being unable to escape a shock would quickly jump over the hurdle in the center of the box to land on the “safe” side. Dogs that had previously learned that escape was impossible would stay on the side of the box in which the shock occurred, not even trying to go over the hurdle.

70. Observational Learning
LO 5.12 Observational learning
Learning new behavior by watching a model perform the behavior
Bandura (1961)
Children observed and later spontaneously imitated observed aggressive behavior
Learning/performance distinction
Learning can take place without actual performance of the learned behavior

71. Figure Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment In Albert Bandura’s famous Bobo doll experiment, the doll was used to demonstrate the impact of observing an adult model performing aggressive behavior on the later aggressive behavior of children. The children in these photos are imitating the adult model’s behavior even though they believe they are alone and are not being watched.

72. Four Elements of Observational Learning
LO 5.12 Observational learning
ATTENTION
To learn through observation learner must first attend to the model
MEMORY
Learner must be able to retain memory of what was done
Example: remembering steps in preparing a dish seen on a cooking show

73. Four Elements of Observational Learning
LO 5.12 Observational learning
IMITATION
Learner must be capable of reproducing actions of the model
MOTIVATION
Learner must have the desire to perform the action

74. Applying Psychology to Everyday Life
LO 5.13 Real world example use of conditioning
Toilet Training a Cat
Use operant principles
Shaping
Transition from litter box to toilet is done in stages
Prepare “the training arena”
Optimizing bathroom success
Positive reinforcement on a variable schedule

75. Misha’s first attempt without the box
Misha’s first attempt without the box. He scored two out of a possible four.

76. Misha demonstrates proper squatting posture
Misha demonstrates proper squatting posture. Note the look of firm concentration.