1. The Structure of the Earth The Earth’s Interior: Methodology

2. Earth’s Interior How do we know what it is like today? –Drilling Most drilling includes the upper 7 km of crust Deepest well: Soviet – 12 km deep –5 yrs, 7 km; 9 yrs, 5 km; then it got stuck –Cost $100 million dollars –Temperature 190oC –Volcanic Activity –Laboratory experiments –Meteorites –Seismic Wave studies

3. Meteorites: Evidence about the Interior Meteorites –Fragments of asteroids and small early planets (planetesimals) that broke up as a result of collision with other solid bodies Composition of Meteorites –Divisions 1. Iron-nickel meteorites –From core of original bodies?? 2. Stony meteorites –Original body area like our mantle 3. Stony-iron meteorites –3 subclasses: »Chrondrites »carbonaceous chondrites »achondrites –From the cores and mantle of asteroids & planetismals

4. . 90% iron 9% nickel Iron-nickel meteorites

5. Stony Meteorite

6. Stony-iron meteorites

7. Seismology: Evidence of the Earth’s Interior Seismology –The scientific study of earthquake –The key to understanding the Earth’s interior

8. Seismic Waves What are they? –Vibrations in the body of the Earth How are they generated? –Naturally Earthquakes Volcanoes Impacts –Artificially Explosions Mechanical devices

9. Seismic Waves: Measuring Seismograph –Thousands of stations are set up worldwide –Used to locate earthquake –Simple pendulum When the ground shakes, the base and frame of the instrument move with it Inertia keeps the pendulum in place It will then appear to move; relative to the shaking ground As it moves, it records the pendulum displacement The tracing is called a seismogram –Networks of seismograph stations are used to determine the location of the earthquake

11. Seismology and the Science of Earthquakes – Waves – Magnitude – and the Richter Scale (3:22 minutes)

12. Seismic Waves: Terms Earthquake –Release of stress build up along a fault –Slipping and moving of rocks along a fault Focus –The origin of seismic waves –The energy of seismic waves is released from this point Epicenter –The point on the earth’s surface directly above the focus Fault –Crack or break in the earth’s crust –Surface along which rocks move Waves: –P waves –S waves –L waves

14. Seismic Waves 3 Main Types released by Earthquakes: 1. P-waves (Primary / Compression waves) Longitudinal / compressional wave –Alternately push (compress) and pull (dilate) the rocks through which they pass »Squeezes and stretches the material in the same direction –Generated by the Focus Fastest of the waves Propagates through solids, liquids and gases

15. 2. S-waves (Secondary / Side-to-side waves) Transverse waves –Generated by the Focus Slower wave Moves material at right angles to the wave direction Propagate only solids

16. Animation of P and S Waves http://www.classzone.com/books/earth _science/terc/content/investigations/es 0402/es0402page05.cfmhttp://www.classzone.com/books/earth _science/terc/content/investigations/es 0402/es0402page05.cfm

17. http://www.classzone.com/books/earth _science/terc/content/visualizations/es 1002/es1002page01.cfm?chapter_no= visualizationhttp://www.classzone.com/books/earth _science/terc/content/visualizations/es 1002/es1002page01.cfm?chapter_no= visualization

18. Visualization of an Earthquake http://www.pbs.org/wnet/savageearth/a nimations/earthquakes/flash.htmlhttp://www.pbs.org/wnet/savageearth/a nimations/earthquakes/flash.html

20. 3. L-waves (Long waves or Love Waves) Surface waves that cause horizontal shearing of the ground –Travel on the surface of the earth and shake rocks sideways as they move across the surface –Generated by the epicenter –Particles travel in a rolling motion –Note: Surface waves cause the most damage Not used to determine Earth’s interior

21. Locating The Epicenter P and S waves travel at different rates –This helps determine the distance to the epicenter P waves will always arrive at a seismic station first –The distance of the P wave ahead of the S wave depends on how far away the earthquake is Key: The further away the epicenter, the wider the gap between the P and S waves.

23. Earthquake http://earthquake.usgs.gov/eqcenter/

24. Predicting Earthquakes Video 2 minutes Earthquakes Video 3 minutes

25. Seismic Topography

26. Volcanoes: Evidence of the Earth’s Interior Referred to as “Windows into the Earth’s Interior.” Why? Volcanoes erupt material that is tens to hundreds of kilometers into the Earth –Deepest rock samples of the Earth’s interior are volcanic rock

27. Importance of Earth Hot Interior Seismic activity – earthquake, volcano Magnetic field (Geomagnetism) –Generated by the movements of the molten iron and nickel layer in the outer core –Convection current in this electrically conducting fluid act as a Dynamo* Fluid acts to generate and maintain the magnetic field * Dynamo theory –Process through which motion of a conductive body in the presence of a magnetic field acts to regenerate the magnetic field –Note: Without this Dynamo effect, the magnetic field would die out within 10 000 years

28. Importance of Earth Hot Interior Interior heat powers convection current of the asthenosphere which in turn allows the lithosphere to move (plates moving) –Result: formation of mountain ranges deep sea trenches Volcanic belts Earthquake zones May be linked to long-term climatic changes