1. Prologue An Introduction to Historical Inquiry

2. What is History?

3. “When does history happen?” Barbara Tuchman Is what happened last week history? Does the past become history only once it’s been interpreted by historians?

4. Change and Continuity in History History focuses on the study of change over time Historians gather facts to understand the change (or lack thereof) which cause events and how these events impact society

5. Questions to consider: What aspects of the civilizations we study provided continuity and stability? How did these institutions sustain themselves for long periods of time? Why was the stability they offered vital to the survival of the society? Are there examples of when continuity was detrimental to a society?

6. Methods of Historical Inquiry

7. Gathering the Evidence First step to understanding the past is to determine the focus of study – Review what has been written – Generate list of questions – Then collect data – which often can be difficult

8. Types of Resources Secondary Based on research and analysis Starting points e.g. books, journals, films Study of how history is written is known as historiography Primary Accounts recorded at the time of the event Can also be non-written date Unprocessed data e.g. diaries, eyewitness accounts, government records, newspaper articles, pottery pieces

9. Reconstructing the Past Other disciplines that help reconstruct the past include: – Archaeology – Anthropology – Ethnology – Economics – Geography – Sciences

10. Legends and History Central characters of legends are human and the stories have a basis in fact Legends are often used by historians and archaeologists as a starting point for research – What is fact? – What is fiction?

11. Archeology and the Study of History Archaeology provides the primary data for other scientists to answer their questions Archaeologists do excavations to solve a problem or test a hypothesis Artifacts become primary data for Anthropologists Ethnologists Paleontologists Biologists Historians

12. Steps of a dig 1.Assemble dig team 2.Remove the top layer of earth 3.Examine for stains in the soil 4.Search for artifacts 5.Record findings in field notes and their location on grid paper on a grid pattern 6.Place artifacts in labelled bags 7.Screen the soil to make certain no artifacts have been missed

13. Composition of Dig Team Always has Field director (licensed archaeologist) Supervisors Crew (usually have minimal experience) Perhaps Photographer Zoologist Botanists Geographers Pathologists

14. Excavating a Dig http://www.saa.org/publicftp/PUBLIC/educat ors/PubEdu/GriddinganArchaeologicalSite.pdf http://www.saa.org/publicftp/PUBLIC/educat ors/PubEdu/GriddinganArchaeologicalSite.pdf Each member of the dig maintains a field journal to record the date, identify the square on the grid being excavated, and describe any finds, impressions, or observations At the end of the season, this information is collated, then are published as site reports

15. Underwater Archaeology: A Unique Challenge Conventional diving can only be done to a depth of 35 metres and only for a short period of time Limited mobility because of diving equipment Limited visibility because of sediment in the water or lack of light Recovered artifacts need to be treated immediately or they will decompose

16. The Story of the Hamilton and Scourge On 8 August 1813, two British schooners were capsized by violent waves in Lake Ontario, killing 53/72 crew At 91 metres, the site had been considered too deep, dark, and cold to explore using standard underwater archaeological methods A 1973 exploration showed that the ships were still intact and well preserved

17. Hamilton and Scourge Reasons for preservation: – Fresh water – Constant near-freezing temperature – Darkness

18. 1982 National Geographic Survey Used a remote-controlled vehicle Took 1900 still photographs 26 hours of videotape Artifacts found: – Cannons – Cutlasses – Boarding axes

19. Analyzing Artifacts Organic Remains – Plants – Animals Best preserved found in – Dry, hot regions – Freezing conditions – Waterlogged places – Were the materials brought to the site, or was it local? Inorganic Remains – Stone tools – Pottery

20. Human Skeletons Age Can be determined for young child and teens through teeth Can determine if a teen through the fusion between the ends and shafts of long bones For adults, usually look at wear on teeth Sex Determined by bone structure Males tend to have heavier, larger bones The pelvis of females are different because of childbearing

21. Paleopathology Study of ancient diseases Childhood diseases often leave evidence in the bones Other diseases cause deformation and destruction of bone Occupations or specific injuries also have influence on bones

22. Information from Stones and Pottery Stones Examination of edges of stones may reveal how it was used Stones used for tools were not randomly selected, as not every stone made a good tool – Examples include flint, chert, and obsidian Pottery Potsherd abundant because: – Baked clay preserves well – Pots were cheap and were discarded when broken – Can also determine: Type of pot How much the clay was worked The techniques used Firing conditions Artistic style Name of potter (sometimes)

23. Methods of Dating Artifacts Stratigraphy Radiocarbon dating

24. Stratigraphy Study of layers (strata) of archaeological remains Most recent materials are found closer to the surface

25. Radiocarbon Dating Williard F. Libby discovered radiocarbon dating Used to determine the age of organic materials by measuring the level of the radioisotope carbon 14 Radiocarbon decays at a constant rate (5730 years for a half-life) Most common method of determining the age of something

26. Analyzing Historical Research Historians draw on many sources to reconstruct the past: – Archaeological data – Legends – Written records (need to remember that eyewitness accounts aren’t always accurate) – Need to remember the mental baggage that might go along with eyewitness accounts

27. Understanding Bias in History Often said that history is written by the winners Bias is the point of view that people tend to bring to a situation and consequently makes it difficult or impossible for them to judge fairly When dealing with primary documents, the historian must analyze the facts and the source

28. Secondary Sources Generally based on information contained in primary sources or on other secondary sources Can give a historian a framework to work within Can be both ancient texts to recent publications Challenge falls to student of history to determine if there were any author biases

29. Social History Historians also study: – Religious life – Economic trends – Technological change – Artistic achievement – Realities of everyday life Homes Clothes Food Health Festivals music

30. Rich versus Poor Written records generally deal with the wealthy and powerful Archaeologists have a greater chance of learning about the life of the poor or middle class Archaeologists are vital to help remember cultures/civilizations with little or know written record

31. Reconstructing the Past We benefit from years of research, analysis, and interpretation when we: – Read a history book – Tour a museum – Explore a reconstructed historical site

32. Cause and Effect: The Importance of Chronology Chronology is the placing of events into the order in which they occurred Helps us see causal relationships between events Understanding history depends on understanding cause and effect relationships on events

33. From BC to BCE and AD to CE BC = Before Christ Now BCE – Before Common Era AD = Anno Domini (In the Year of Our Lord) Now CE – Common Era This does not make sense to non-Christian civilizations E.g. 2001 AD = 1422 AH (Anno Hejirae – In the year of the Hijra – the Prophet Muhammad’s departure from Mecca to Medina Jewish Calendar, 2000 AD is 5761 Chinese calendar, 2000 AD is 4699

34. Conflicting Interpretations: The History of History Two historians analyzing the same artifacts and documents can come to different conclusion We need to remember when the book was written and who wrote it

35. Liberal, Marxist, and Post-Modern Historians Liberal view Sense of inevitable progress History as unfolding in a progressive manner Each generation building on the accomplishments of the previous Catastrophes teach us lessons to help us grow and move forward Marxist View History as the struggle between rich and poor, the powerful and weak Focuses on the struggles of the common people against the tyranny and oppression of those with power History is moving towards an ultimate conflict that will see the overthrow of the elite and a shifting of power to the people

36. Post-Modernism Emphasizes the role of the historian in creating history Historical truth is relative so no particular account can ever claim to be true Celebrates diversity Whose history are we telling

37. Lifelong Skills Through the Study of History Historical studies involve gathering information from a wide variety of sources, analyzing it, and then synthesizing it into a coherent account Must have good research skills – Knowing where to look for information – Knowing how to read efficiently – Knowing how to make good notes – Being organized

38. Other Skills Necessary Analyze effectively Evaluate information Good thinking skills Thinking creatively Ability to write and speak effectively

39. Creativity and Collaboration Being able to interpret creatively is critical Thinking creatively means reading and interpreting information in new and original ways Creativity will also be a key to getting a good grade in my class