1. PLS 121: American Politics and Government Political Science The Philosophy of Science

2. 2 / 14 The Story Thus Far… So far: –The technical requirements for science Today: –The reasons for those technical requirements –Nature of reality –Philosophy (and philosophers) of science –Necessary conditions for science

3. 3 / 14 The Real World? What is the nature of reality? Does a reality exist? –If so, can we ever come to know it? Answers to these questions –Objective –Inter-Subjective –Subjective

4. 4 / 14 Objective Reality There is a real world that exists separate from ourselves. That world can be known and understood by us.

5. 5 / 14 Subjective Reality There is no real world separate from our senses. The act of experiencing the world creates it.

6. 6 / 14 Inter-Subjective Reality There exists an objective reality. We are, unfortunately, unable to know this reality. We are, however, able to approximate knowledge of it. To get close to the reality, multiple observations by multiple persons must be used.

7. 7 / 14 Philosophy of Science Popper –Falsification as the line of demarcation between science and pseudo-science (between physics and metaphysics) Kuhn –Normal and Revolutionary Science Lakatos –Research Programmes

8. 8 / 14 Karl Popper The difference between science and pseudoscience is falsifiability Science creates hypotheses that are empirically testable Pseudoscience does not In a science, when a theory is falsified, it is discarded

9. 9 / 14 Samuel Kuhn Objection to Popper: –Obviously science does not discard theories that have produced negative results Response: –Science progresses through periods of “Normal Science” and “Revolutionary Science”

10. 10 / 14 Samuel Kuhn Normal Science: –A common paradigm (model) exists to drive research Revolutionary Science: –This common way of looking at the problems and answers is lacking Both are necessary in science at times

11. 11 / 14 Imre Lakatos Science is a research programme The programme consists of: –“Hard Core” of the theory –“Protective Belt” of the hypotheses and assumptions

12. 12 / 14 Imre Lakatos The numerous hypotheses that have been falsified are parts of the Protective Belt that can be jettisoned without serously affecting the core theory Research programmes change in reaction to the hypotheses that have and have not been falsified

13. 13 / 14 Imre Lakatos Progressive Science: –Programme changes in response to falsified hypotheses, but creates a greater understanding of the underlying factors. Degenerate Science: –Programme changes in response to falsified hypotheses, but creates no new understanding. –Ad hoc changes We should strive to have a progressive science

14. 14 / 14 Assignment What is the purpose of government? –How would your philosophers answer the question. Last Names A–D: Plato Last Names C–H: Aristotle Last Names E–L: Machiavelli Last Names I–O: Hobbes Last Names M–R: Locke Last Names P–S: Burke Last Names S–V: Montesquieu Last Names T–Z: J.S. Mill Last Names W–B: Nietzsche