1. 1 Linking Science Education to Labour Markets: Issues and Strategies Keith M Lewin

2. 2 Outline Science education, and labour market linkages: The case for and against. Changes in labour markets and knowledge generation A labour market metaphor for science education Strategies for linkages to labour markets Concluding remarks

3. 3 Observations Economic development is widely associated with advances in technology. Technology benefits from, but is not always led by, scientific insights Early industrializing countries generated comparative advantages based on the application of knowledge and skill to design and production (technology), and the transformation of infrastructure and the environment Science education, labour markets and economic growth

4. 4 Rapidly developing East Asian countries invested heavily in skill based human resource development early in their development cycles which led to rapid growth Leading countries in the information and communication revolution all have quality science and technology education systems Science education, labour markets and economic growth (cont.)

5. 5 Investment in education and training in science and technology are necessary but not sufficient for economic development. Economic analysis supports the view that education and training are a major factor in economic development. Labour market signals often indicate shortages of S+T human resources in developing countries. Globalisation and patenting of technologies increase the importance of national S+T capability Arguments for linking science education to labour markets

6. 6 Most governments stress the importance of S + T capability in development plans. Parents and students value employable skills from schooling;. These include S+T Externalities from science education are beneficial to development ( e.g. improved health and nutrition) Science education is expensive; its outcomes should have utility Arguments for linking science education to labour markets (cont.)

7. 7 Growth in the Numbers of Science Students in Higher Education

8. 8 Patent and Internet Host

9. 9 Investment in Secondary Education and GDP 12 Years Later

10. 10 Strategic technology consumption Science and Technology Policy Science Education Policy Process Innovations Access to Technologies Product innovation First mover advantages Curriculum Aims and Outcomes Labour Market HRD Demand Formal and Informal Sectors Social Needs and Living skills Ownership of of S and T

11. 11 The conceptual logic of science curricula is undermined by a emphasis on application and job related skills. Science is best developed within conventional disciplines Modes of knowledge generation and use are changing; most real world problems are cross disciplinary. Science concepts logic can be developed using many kinds of content. Arguments against linking science education to labour markets 1

12. 12 Predicting labour market demand for skills is notoriously unreliable A problem for specific rather than generic S+ T related outcomes. Science thinking skills will remain in demand; specific technologies and jobs change Arguments against linking science education to labour markets 1 (cont.)

13. 13 Many developing country labour markets are not S+T based. S+T is most relevant to industrial country labour markets and encourages brain drain National capacity will not grow without investment; technological dependence is unhelpful Some Arguments against linking science education to labour markets 2

14. 14 Curiosity and imagination are stifled by a focus on utility. Applications are not interesting Application depends on curiosity and imagination Arguments against linking science education to labour markets 2( cont.)

15. 15 Most science students will not become professional scientists. Their science education should not be linked to the profession of science Science education should meet broader needs which run across a range of employment Arguments against linking science education to labour markets 1(cont.)

16. 16 Schooling is about the whole individual; it should not anticipate life futures by linking outcomes to occupations and livelihoods Strategic links to the labour market do not preclude the development of other valued outcomes. Choices have to be made where resources are scarce Arguments against linking science education to labour markets 2( cont.)

17. 17 Trends in Employment with Development

18. 18 Mode 1 Knowledge generation in physically located in hierarchically organised institutions Validation of knowledge by restricted communities of professionals Problem definition grounded in academic disciplines and specialisms New Modes of Knowledge Generation

19. 19 Mode 2 Task focused open structures not located in the same physical institution Validation of knowledge with reference to broadly based groups of stakeholders New Modes of Knowledge Generation(cont.)

20. 20 Mode 2 (cont.) Knowledge production located close to application and driven by problems arising in the economic and social world Flexible patterns of collaboration, specialisation and transdisciplinarity New Modes of Knowledge Generation(cont.)

21. 21 A Metaphor for Science Education from the Labour Market A “Fordist” Model standardised products production “pushed” “just in case” supply minimise labour costs individual and intermittent innovation quality control at output A “Post-Fordist” Model differentiated products demand led production “just in time” supply maximise workforce potentials collective and continuous improvement quality control at input

22. 22 Differentiated Products? Does science education policy recognise different outcomes for different groups with different needs? Science for all, science for future professionals, science for informal livelihoods, science for marginalised groups with special needs?

23. 23 Production pushed or demand led? Is science policy supply led or does it respond to effective demand? Is curriculum reform pushed or pulled?

24. 24 Minimise labour costs or maximise potentials? Does science education policy focus on use of teacher time or use of student learning time? How can more use be made of student potential to contribute to their own learning?

25. 25 Continuous Improvement - “Kaizen” Does science education promote opportunities to develop skills for continuous improvement? Does science education promote co- operative rather than competitive problem solving?

26. 26 Quality Control and Self Regulation Do science students evaluate the quality of their own work and that of peers? Is most quality control (assessment of learning outcomes) external or internal? Does science education encourage conformity or creativity?

27. 27 Identify learning outcomes related to generic and transferable skills Audit curriculum and encourage content which is more rather than less relevant to occupations and livelihoods Favour technologising rather than academicising science curricula and relate concepts to application Strategies for linking science education to the labour market

28. 28 Increase awareness amongst science teachers of applications of science in the formal labour market, of “street science” in the informal sector, and of pro poor rural science Encourage employers to support curriculum enrichment Strategies for linking science education to the labour market (cont.)

29. 29 Arrange work exposure and experience for older science students (and science teachers) Develop assessment strategies that reward conceptualization, analysis and and application in science and technology Strategies for linking science education to the labour market (cont.)

30. 30 Concluding Remarks The case for making links between science curricula and labour markets is convincing Links need not undermine the conceptual integrity of science education; they can increase relevance.

31. 31 Concluding Remarks (cont.) Linking outcomes to labour market needs can be both pro-poor and pro- growth. It does not preclude retaining other valued outcomes. Curricula outcomes can be specified in terms of competencies which are generic and transferable (science thinking skills, analytic techniques, empirical tests). Content can be selected which is relevant to context.

32. 32 Concluding Remarks (cont.) Changing labour market needs and new modes of knowledge generation encourages rethinking of traditional models of providing science education

33. 33 Fin

34. 34 Questions Should the map of science education be redrawn to enrich links with labour markets? Which competencies are valued by different labour markets and how can they be reflected in the content and organization of learning? Which strategies are most feasible and effective in which contexts?