1. The Consolidation of Latin America 1830-1920
Chapter 25

2. Beginnings of Change
Creoles (American born whites) begin to question the policies of Spain and Portugal
Majority of population begins to resent new taxes and administrative reforms
Early revolutionary attempts fail due to class divisions
Failure of upper classes to enlist support of American Indian, mestizo, mulatto population

3. Causes of Political Change
Latin American independence part of the Atlantic Revolutions of the 18th and 19th century.
Four key events that shape their ideas:
American Revolution
Model of how colonies could break from mother country
French Revolution
Slogan “Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity” appeals to some
Creoles reject radical phase (regicide, rejection of church authority, social leveling implied by Declaration of the Rights of Man
Independence of Haiti
Slaves rebel in 1791 under Toussaint L’ Overture (St. Domingue, France)
Attempts to subdue the island are defeated, declared independent republic of Haiti in 1804.
Latin American elites (Cuba, Puerto Rico) want to avoid similar situations, slaves and people of color see it as symbol of freedom and hope
Confusion on Iberian Peninsula
1808: France invades Portugal and Spain (Insurrection and guerilla warfare)
Who is the legitimate ruler? Napoleon appoints brother king, central committee or junta central ruled in Spanish kings name (opposition)
Caracas, Bogota, Mexico: Local elites pretend to be loyal to King Ferdinand, set up juntas, but rule on their own behalf

4. Spanish American Independence Struggles
Three Theaters of Independence Movements:
Mexico:
South America:
Caribbean:
All former Spanish countries will become republics
Brazil will become a monarchy

5. Mexico
Father Miguel de Hidalgo calls for help from American Indians and mestizos against a conspiracy of leading Creoles.
Wins early victories, but loses support of Creoles, captured and executed
After 1820, conservative Creoles are more willing to move toward independence by uniting with the remnants of Hidalgo’s insurgent forces
Augustine de Iturbide: Creole officer sent to eliminated insurgents, but creates agreement to combine forces with them
Occupy Mexico City (September 1821)
Proclaimed emperor of Mexico
The new Mexico:
Born as a monarchy
Little attention given to social aspirations and programs of Hidalgo
Originally included parts of Central America
Mexican empire collapses in 1824, becomes a republic, Central American states split into independent nations

6. South America Simon Bolivar: Rio de la Plata
: leads revolt against Spain
Had great military skill and passion for independence
Wins victories in Venezuela, Columbia, Ecuador (These areas united as Gran Columbia until broken up over political differences and regional interests in 1830)
Rejects attempts to be crowned king, fearful of anarchy
Rio de la Plata
Portenos (residents of Buenos Aires ) Buenos Aires had become a booming commercial center so they resent Spanish trade restrictions
Try autonomy as opposed to independence, but try to keep control over Paraguay
1816: United Provinces of Rio de la Plata proclaims independence, but far from united (Bolivia- Spain, Paraguay- declares independence, Banda Oriental (Uruguay) resists authority of Buenos Aires)
Jose de San Martin: emerges as military commander in Buenos Aires
Wiling to speak and act for independence
Go from Argentina to Chile to help revolutionary forces, slowly wins support among the Creoles in Peru after victory at Ayacucho
By 1825, all of Spanish South America had gained political independence (emerge as independent republics with representative governments)

7. Caribbean Remain loyal to Spain until the end of the 19th century
Fear of slave rebellions (Cuba, Puerto Rico)
Large Spanish garrisons occupied the area.

8. Brazilian Independence
Brazil grows in population and economic importance by the end of the 18th century.
Demand for sugar, cotton, cacao
Results: slave imports increase
Planters and merchants want more open trade, fewer taxes, but fear a social uprising/revolution
Small movements for independence (Minas Gerias- 1788, Bahia 1798) unsuccessful
Changes in Portugal
1807: France invades Portugal, royal family and court flee to Brazil
Rio de Janeiro becomes capital of Portuguese empire
Brazil now on equal footing with Portugal, royal government set up in the colony, ports of Brazil opened to the world
King Dom Joao VI lives and rules in Brazil until 1820
Brings royal government closer, reinforced the colonial relationship
Becomes an imperial city
Changes for Brazil: Printing press, schools, booming commerce, resentment/jealousy of bureaucrats
1820: Napoleon has been defeated in Europe, liberal revolution in Portugal recalls the king and parliament convoked
King Joao VI leaves his son Pedro as regent, instructs him that if independence has to come, he should lead the movement
September 1822: declares Brazilian independence, becomes Dom Pedro I constitutional emperor of Brazil
Fighting against Portuguese troops lasts a year
Independence does not upset social organization based on slavery or the political structure

9. Old and New Problems
Shared ideals of the revolutionaries: representative government, open careers, freedom of commerce and trade, right to private property, belief in individual as basis of society, idea of sovereign and independent states
Problems:
Religion: Roman Catholicism had been the only allowed religion under Spain.
Some leaders try to maintain Catholicism as official religion while other try to end exclusion of other faiths
Conservative forces use defense of church as rallying cry
Egalitarian Ideas: (Issues of slavery, Indian tribute, taxes on minorities)
By 1854, slavery abolished every where but Cuba, Puerto Rico, Brazil
Tribute and taxes end slowly because money was needed
Fear that mass population was not ready for self rule and democracy
Voting Rights:
Men only
Literacy restrictions
No vote or public office for women
Color Distinctions:
Creoles don’t trust the popular classes
Mexico, Guatemala, Andean nations- Indian population remains outside of political life
Indians and mixed populations suspicious of political elite from the old aristocracy, new commercial/urban bourgeoisie

10. Post Revolution Political Fragmentation
Grouped into regional blocks
Regional rivalries, economic competition, political divisions prevent unification
Mexico: monarchy, then unstable republic until 1860’s (military coups, financial failures, foreign involvement, political turmoil)
Central America: breaks away from Mexico, forms union, regional antagonism, resentment of Guatemala led to dissolution of the union in 1838.
Caribbean:
Cuba and Puerto Rico remain loyal
Dominican Republic gains independence in 1844
South America:
Gran Columbia- Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Panama ends 1830
Rio de la Plata- Argentina hopes to lead, Paraguay maintains autonomy, Uruguay formed from independence movement against neighbors (Argentina and Brazil) 1828
Peru and Bolivia attempt union under Mestizo General Andres Santa Cruz
Chile follows its own stable political course
Reasons for failure of unions
Geography, regional interests, political divisions

11. Caudillos
Caudillos: independent leaders who dominate local areas and sometimes seize the national government
Created by decades of war in places like Venezuela, Colombia, Mexico
Consist of large armies loyal to their regional commanders
Became the arbiter of power during times of division and make or unmake governments
Caudillos become interested in power for their own sake
Could represent different groups (regional elites, Indians, peasants poor) receiving their support
Rafael Carrera (Guatemala)- Interest: American Indian

12. Politics
Most political leaders agree to republics, but couldn’t agree to what kind.
Centralists: strong, centralized governments with broad powers
Federalists: want tax and commercial policies set by regional governments
Other issues:
Liberals: rights of individual, attack corporate structure of society, decentralized government (US and France)
Conservatives: strong centralized state, maintain aspects of colonial society, structure of corporate groups (American Indians), artisan guilds, institutions such as the church provided an equitable basis of social action and should be recognized in law. Society is not based on open competition, each group had a function and was linked to all others

13. Politics Political parties form around the liberals and conservatives
Leaders come from the landowning, bourgeoisie, so little differentiates them from others
Personality could play a major role
Juan Manuel de Rosas- Argentina
Antonio Lope de Santa Anna- Mexico
Result: 50 years of political turmoil and instability
Presidents come and go quickly
Liberal/Conservative constitutions short lived (New government overturned due to small margin for interpretation)
Success stories:
Chile establishes system that allow compromise
Brazil: maintains compromise

14. Role of the Church Church plays vital role in politics
Divides conservatives from secular liberals
Mexico: Church in education, economy, politics
Liberals try to limit its role in civil life
Church fights back with pro clerical supporters and the power of papacy

15. Diplomacy New nations seek diplomatic recognition and security
1820’s seems some plans in Europe to help restore Spain’s colonies
Britain opposes since they are main power at sea
US creates Monroe Doctrine (1823) stating that any attempt by a European power to colonize in the Americas would be a threat to the US
Economic Impact
Britain could trade recognition for freedom to trade with new nations
Britain sells about 5 million pounds of goods to the LA nations each year
Britain in a way replaces Spain as dominant economic force
Latin American countries turn to foreign governments and banks for loans
Latin America becomes dependant on foreign markets and foreign imports

16. Stagnation Economy is stagnant from 1820-1850
Wars destroy industry
Roads are poor
Money tied up in land
Changes in 1850 with European demand for Latin American products
Coffee (Brazil)
Beef and hides (Argentina)
Minerals and grains (Chile)
Fertilizer (Guano) (Profits allow Peru to end tribute system and slavery)
Changes from Profits
Cities grow and provide good internal markets
Steamships and railroads introduced

17. Economic Resurgence
New attitude and possibilities in the growing world market for Latin America
Liberal ideas focus on positivism (Auguste Comte’s philosophy that stressed observation and a scientific approach to societies problems) for a guiding set of principals and justification for political stability and economic growth.
Science applied to new LA products of copper and rubber
Increasing demand for wheat, sugar, and coffee
Population doubles in 60 years ( : 43 million)
Economies growth with exports in Columbia, Argentina, Brazil
Foreign entrepreneurs, bankers join with liberals, landowners, merchants to back liberal programs
Leaders believe in progress, education, free competition, but sometimes don’t trust their own people
Problems: lands taken by governments or land owning groups, farmers displaced, church lands seized, flood of immigrants to Argentina and Brazil creates tenancy, peonage, servitude

18. Mexico: Instability and Foreign Intervention
1824, Mexican Constitution
Federalist
Conservative centralists v. liberal federalists
Reforms attempted, 1830s
Opposed by Antonio López de Santa Anna, caudillo
War with U.S.
Benito Juárez
Liberal revolt,1854
New constitution, 1857
Privileges of army and church diminished
Lands sold to individuals
French in to assist conservatives
Maximilian von Habsburg
1867, French withdraw
Maximilian executed
Juárez in office to 1872

19. Argentina United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata, 1816
Liberals v. federalists
Juan Manuel de Rosas, 1831
Federalist
Overthrown, 1852
Reunification,
Domingo F. Sarmiento

20. The Brazilian Empire Pedro I Pedro II Economic prosperity Abolition
1824, liberal constitution
Abdicates, 1831
Pedro II
Regency,
Economic prosperity
Coffee export (Fazendas- coffee estates) by % of exports
Slavery intensified
Infrastructure improved- transportation, telegraph, banking, middle class
Abolition
Achieved, 1888
Republican Party
Formed, 1871
Near bloodless coup, 1889
Republic founded

21. Societies in Search of Themselves
Cultural Expression After Independence
Area open to scientific observers, travelers, artists, etc. who come to see Latin America.
Elite follow Europe- fashion
1930s, Romanticism
1870s
Realism
Positivism
Mass culture unchanged

22. Old Patterns of Gender, Class, and Race
Little change
The Great Boom,
European demand
Exports
Foreign investors
Germany, U.S., Britain

23. Mexico and Argentina: Examples of Economic Transformation
Porfirio Díaz- Mexico
1876, president
Foreign capital used for infrastructure
Revolt suppressed
, Civil War
Electoral reform
Argentina
Meat exports
Immigration
Distinct culture
1890s
Socialist party forms
Strikes from 1910

24. Mexico and Argentina: Examples of Economic Transformation
Radical Party
Middle class
1916, in power
Uncle Sam Goes South
Spanish-American War, 1898
Cuba
American investment
Puerto Rico annexed
Colombia
U.S. backs revolution