1. TUNNELS

2. TERMINOLOGY for UNDERGROUND STRUCTURES
Adit galeri
Tunnel tünel
Subway metro
Shaft baca
Chamber oda
Portal ana giriş veya çıkış
Pilot adit yan galeri, pilot galerisi
Centre merkez, eksen
Face ayna
Wall ~ site yan, kenar, duvar
Floor taban
Roof tavan

3. Overbreak.............................aşırı sökülme
Excavated profile kazı profili
Natural archling doğal kemerlenme
Load yük
Support destek, iksa
Failure yenilme, çökme
Gentle failure yavaş yenilme
Rock burst kaya patlaması
Squeezing ground sıkışan zemin
Swelling ground şişen zemin
Clay-filled joint kil dolgulu eklem
Long term stability uzun süreli duraylılık
Ground treatment zemin iyileştirmesi
Support before excavation....kazı öncesi destekleme

4. Jet grouted roof cover..............jet grouting ile iyileştirilmiş tavan örtüsü
Shotcrete initial lining püskürtme beton başlangıç çizgisi
Jet grouted floor cover jet grouting ile iyileştirilmiş döşeme
Top heading kalot (Crown)
Invert stros (Bottom excavation)
Bench üzengi çizgisi
Final concrete lining sonuncu beton kaplama (nihai beton kaplama çizgisi)
SHIELD tunnelling method KALKAN Yöntemi
CUT & COVER tunnelling method....AÇ-KAPA Yöntemi
TBM (Full face ~ Total Boring Machine).....TÜM KESİT KAZI MAKİNASI

5. TERMINOLOGY for EXCAVATIONS of ROCKS & SOILS
DRILLING Sondalama
Hardness Sertlik
Toughness Dayanım – direnç
Abrasiveness Aşındırıcılık
Structure Jeolojik yapı
Drilkling fluids Sondaj sıvısı
AUGERING Burgulama
MACHINE BORING.....Mekanize tünel açma
Total Boring Machine (TBM)
Full face excavation
BLASTING Patlatma

6. SCRAPING...................Kazıma (makinayla)
RIPPING Kırarak kazıma
DIGGING Kazma
GROUND WATER yeraltısuyu
Control of groundwater
Groundwater flow
Rate of flow
Volume of flow
Boundaries

7. TUNNEL DESCRIPTION Made into natural material (rocks) Empty inside
Carry the loads itself
Both ends are open to atmosphere
Generally horizontal
Thick walled structure looks like cylinder

9. 1- Kilit (anahtar) taşı........................Key stone
2- Kemer Arch
3- Ayak (duvar) Wall
4- Taban Floor
5- Üzengi Bench
6- Üzengi çizgisi (düzeyi) Bench line or plane
7- Kalot Top heading
8- Stros Invert
9- Ano Ano (unit)

10. Tunnel Section for Swelling Ground
1- Digging section
2- Support
3- Swelling section
4- Pressurized area
5- Flow direction of water

11. SURFACE EXCAVATIONS
Deformation & failure

12. UNDERGROUND EXCAVATIONS
In Rock
In Sediment
Stability & Arching
Water
Dry tunnel above water table
Wet tunnel below water table
Gases
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Carbon monoxide (CO)
Methane (CH4)
Hydrogen sulphide (H2S)
Other gases

13. Gas bursts......................gaz patlaması
Rock falls kaya düşmesi
Rock bursts kaya fırlaması
Squeezing ground şişen – kabaran zemin
Temperature
Subsidence

14. EXPLORATION & INVESTIGATIONS RELATED of SLOPE STABILITY
Geomorphologic maping and preparation of longitudinal & cross sections
Geological maping & surveyings (aerial photographs)
Geophysical surveyings
Underground explorations, boreholes
Ground water surveyings
Laboratory tests
Model studies

15. SURFACE EXCAVATIONS
Permanent
Short term excavations

16. SUBSURFACE EXCAVATIONS
GEOLOGY
Soil profile or hard rock geology
Structure
Ground water (hydrogeology)
Stability

17. INVESTIGATIONS Mapping (Topographic, geologic, etc...)
Geophysical surveying (especially seismic velocity of rocks)
Trial pits & boreholes
General and local stability analysis
Decide to excavation method

19. UNDERGROUND EXCAVATIONS
Adit, shaft, incline, large chamber
Tunnel
Subway ~ metro
Underpass
Shelter
Power house
Ware house, store, mining ...etc

20. GASES (can be lethal or burst)
Carbon monoxide (CO) of air
Carbon dioxide (CO2) of air
Methane (CH4) of air
(Highly explosive with air) marsh gas
Hydrogene sulphide (H2S) 1.19 of air
(Highly toxic and explosive)
Sulphur dioxide (SO2)

21. ROCK FALL
SQUEEZING GROUND (sand, silt, shale, clay)
ROCK BURST
BULKING (Increase in volume, 10-40%)

22. FACTORS EFFECTING EXCAVATION of ROCKS
Mineralogical composition of rocks
Texture & fabric
Petrographic features
Structure
Rock mass
Strike & dip of beds in relation to face of excavation
Intensity of tectonic disturbances
Degreee of weathering

23. RESISTANCE of ROCKS to EXCAVATION
Loose soils
Soil easy to spade (bel ile kazmak)
Soil easy to dig
Crumbling weak rocks (ufalamak)
Rocks easy to blast
Rocks difficult to blast
Rocks very difficult to blast

24. TUNNELLING METHODS

25. SHIELD TUNNELLING METHOD
This method involves the use of shield machine to drive the tunnels below the ground.
After completion of a work shaft, the shield machine is lowered into the shaft and assembled there before excavation and construction of the tunnels using precast concrete lining segments of about 1.2 meter width.
This construction method causes minimal disruption to traffic and the environment because all the work takes place below ground and the ground level environment is unaffected.

27. CUT and COVER TUNNELLING METHOD
This construction method, whereby the site is fully excavated, the structure built and then covered over, uses diaphragm walls as temporary retaining walls within the site area.
Step one :Construction of diaphragm walls, pin piles, and decking.
Step two :Excavation within the diaphragm walls, installing struts as work progresses.
Step three :Construction of permanent floor slabs and walls.
Step four : Fitting out the internal structures, backfilling, and reinstating the surface structures.

29. TBM (Tunnel Boring Machine)
Mechanical-support TBM
Compressed-air TBM
Slurry shield TBM
Earth pressure balance machine
Mixed-face shield TBM

30. 1- Mechanical Support TBM
A mechanical-support TBM has a full-face cutterhead which provides face support by constantly pushing the excavated material ahead of the cutterhead against the surrounding ground.

31. 2- Compressed-Air TBM
A compressed-air TBM can have either a full-face cutterhead or excavating arms. Confinement is achieved by pressurizing the air in the cutter chamber.

32. 3- Slurry Shield TBM
A slurry shield TBM has a full-face cutterhead. Confinement is achieved by pressurizing boring fluid inside the cutterhead chamber.

33. 4- Earth Pressure Balance Machine
An earth pressure balance machine has a full-face cutterhead. Confinement is achieved by pressurizing the excavated material in the cutterhead chamber.

34. 5- Mix-Face Shield TBM
Mix-face shield TBMs have full-face cutterheads and can work inclosed or open mode and with different confinement techniques.

35. EFFECT of GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES to TUNNEL EXCAVATION
Effect of soil layers: horizontal, vertical and inclined layers have different kinds of loading conditions for tunnels.

36. Effect of faults: the relation between the fault slope direction and the tunnel direction, width of the fault zone, type and thickness of the fill material and the hydrostatic pressures in both sides of the fault are some problems in the tunnelling.
Relation between the fault zone and the tunnel

37. Tunnel excavations in the slopes: the discontinuities (layers, fissures) inclined inside or outside of the slope are very important regarding the stress and strength of the tunnel.

38. Effect of the folds: While tunnel is excavated in an area that contains folded rocks, different stresses and conditions may occur depending on the fold type.
Fold axis and the tunnel direction is parallel
Fold axis and the tunnel direction is vertical

39. CLASSIFICATION of ROCKS for TUNNELING PURPOSES

40. Classification of rocks for engineering purposes is needed in analyzing the project costs and to obtain an economic and reliable solution.
The classification of the rocks, that the tunnel will be constructed in, is first done by Terzaghi. But, it is too general and gives qualitative results.

41. TUNNEL ROCK CLASSIFICATION by TERZAGHI

42. Laufer classified tunnel rocks to 7 groups according to stand-up time

43. Rock classification and determination of unsupported span

44. URFA IRRIGATION TUNNEL

46. ONE of the LONGEST IRRIGATION TUNNELS in the WORLD

47. Consist of two concrete lined tunnels each of which is 7
Consist of two concrete lined tunnels each of which is 7.62 m in diameter and 26.4 km in length discharging water from the reservoir of Atatürk Dam.