1. Robert Marzano

2. Bell Shaped Curve
Normal distribution has three standard deviations above the mean, and three below.
34 % of scores will be found in the interval between the mean and and the first standard devation, 14% in the next interval

3. Effect Size
The researchers have translated the results of a given study into a unit of measurement referred to here as the effect size.
The effect size expresses the increase or decrease in achievement of the experimental group in standard deviation units. To illustrate assume that the effect size computed for a specific study is This means the average score of r students in that experiemental group is 1.0 standard devations higher than the control group.
This can translate into a percentile gain- an effect size of 1.0 translates into a percentile gain of 34 points – one standard deviation above the mean encompasses 34% of the scores.

4. Instruction Strategies that affect achievement
Identifying Similarities and Differences
Summarizing and note Taking
Reinforcing effort and Providing Recognition
Homework and Practice
Non-linguistic Representations
Cooperative learning
Setting Objectives and Providing Feedback
Generating and testing hypotheses
Questions, Cues and Advance Organisers

5. Identifying Similarities and Differences
Strategies that enhance students’ understanding of and ability to use knowledge
Presenting students with explicit guidance in identifying similarities and differences
Asking students to independently identify similarities and differences
Representing s & d in graphic or symbolic form
Identification of s & d can be accomplished in a variety of ways
Ave Effect Size:
1.61

6. Venn Diagrams
Comparison matrix
Use of metaphors and analogies

7. Summarizing and note Taking
To effectively summarize, students must delete some information, substitute some information, and keep some information
To do this effectively they must analyse information at a fairly deep level
Being aware of the explicit structure of information is an aid to summarizing information
Ave Effect Size:
1.00

8. Reinforcing effort and Providing Recognition
Not all students realise the importance of believing in effort.
Students can learn to change their beliefs to an emphasis on effort.
Rewards do not necessarily have a negative effect on intrinsic motivation.
Ave Effect Size:
.80

9. Homework and Practice
The amount of homework should be different through the levels of schooling
Parent involvement in homework should be kept to a minimum
The purpose of homework should be identified and articulated.
If homework is assigned, it should be commented on.
Ave Effect Size:
.77

10. Non-linguistic Representations
A variety of activities produce non linguistic representations. Each of the following enhances understanding:
Creating graphic representations
Making physical models
Generating mental pictures
Drawing pictures and pictographs
Engaging in kinesthetic activity
Ave Effect Size:
.75

11. Non-linguistic Representations
Non linguistic representations should elaborate on knowledge

12. Cooperative learning Positive interdependence
Face to face promotive activity
Individual and group accountability
Interpersonal and small group skills
Group processing
Ave Effect Size:
.73
Five defining elements of cooperative learning
Positive interdependence - a sense of sink or swim together
Face to face promotive activity - helping each other learn, applauding success and efforts
Individual and group accountability - each of us has to contribute to the group achieving goals
Interpersonal and small group skills - communication, trust, leadership, decision making, and conflict resolution
Group processing - reflecting on how well the team is functioning and how to function even better

13. Cooperative learning
Organising groups on ability levels should be done sparingly
Cooperative groups should be rather small in size.
Cooperative learning should be applied consistently and systematically, but not oversused.

14. Setting Objectives and Providing Feedback
Instructional goals narrow what students focus on.
Instructional goals should not be too specific.
Students should be encouraged to personalize the teacher's goals.
Goal setting is broadly establishing a direction for learning.
1. Instructional goals narrow what students focus on. Students’ attention may be so focused on achieving the goal that they may ignore other information not directoy related to the goal
Instructional goals should not be too specific.
Students should be encouraged to personalize the teacher's goals.

15. Feedback Feedback should be corrective in nature
Feedback should be timely
Feedback should be specific to a criterion
Students can effectively provide some of their own feedback.
Ave Effect Size:
.61
Feedback should be corrective in nature
Feedback should be timely - in general the more delay in giving feedback the leass improvement there is in achievement. Providing feedback immediately after a test has the largest effect size (.72) Giving test
Feedback should be specific to a criterion -for feedback to be most useful it should make reference to a specific skill or knowledge, rather than comparing students to their cohort - this tells them nothing about their learning.

16. Generating and testing hypotheses
Involves the application of knowledge
Can be used across disciplines
Hypothesis generation and testing can be approached in a more inductive of deductive manner.
Teachers should ask students to explain clearly their hypotheses and their conclusions.
Ave Effect Size:
.61

17. Questions, Cues and Advance Organisers
Cues & questions should focus on what is important as opposed to what is unusual.
Higher level questions produce deeper learning than lower level.
Waiting briefly before accepting responses increases the depth of students answers.
Questions are effective learning tools, even when asked before a learning experience
Ave Effect Size:
.59