1. Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved. John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition Chapter 6 Collecting Quantitative Data

2. Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved. John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition 6.2 By the end of this chapter, you should be able to: Identify the steps in the process of quantitative data collection. Define different approaches used to sample participants for a quantitative study Describe the process of obtaining permissions to study individuals and research sites List different options for types of data often collected in quantitative research Identify how to locate, select, and assess an instrument(s) for use in data collection Describe procedures for administering quantitative data collection

3. Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved. John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition 6.3 Who Will Be Studied: Identifying the Unit of Analysis Unit of analysis is the level (e.g., individual, family, school, school district) from which the data will be gathered. There may be different units of analysis: –One for the dependent variable –One for the independent variable

4. Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved. John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition 6.4 Population and Sample A population is a group of individuals that have the same characteristic(s). A sample is a subgroup of the target population that the researcher plans to study for the purpose of making generalizations about the target population. –Samples are only estimates. –The difference between the sample estimate and the true population is the “sampling error.”

5. Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved. John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition 6.5 Populations and Samples Sample Target Population Sample Population - All teachers in high schools in one city - College students in all community colleges - Adult educators in all schools of education Sample - All high school biology teachers - Students in one community college - Adult educators in five schools of education in the Midwest

6. Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved. John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition 6.6 Probability and Nonprobability Sampling Probability sampling is the selection of individuals from the population so that they are representative of the population. Nonprobability sampling is the selection of participants because they are available, convenient, or represent some characteristic the investigator wants to study.

7. Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved. John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition 6.7 Types of Quantitative Sampling Quantitative Sampling Strategies Probability Sampling Nonprobability Sampling Simple Systematic Stratified Multistage Random Sampling Sampling Cluster Sampling Convenience Snowball Sampling

8. Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved. John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition 6.8 Types of Probability Samples Simple random: Selecting a sample from the population so all in the population have an equal chance of being selected Systematic: Choosing every “nth” individual or site in the population until the desired sample size is achieved

9. Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved. John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition 6.9 Types of Probability Samples (cont’d) Multistage cluster sampling: A sample chosen in one or two stages because the population is not easily identified or is large Stratified sampling: Stratifying the population on a characteristic (e.g., gender) then sampling from each stratum

10. Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved. John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition 6.10 Proportional Stratification Sampling Approach Boys N=6000 Girls N=3000 Population (N=9000).66 of pop.200.33 of pop.100 Sample = 300

11. Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved. John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition 6.11 Types of Nonprobability Samples Convenience sampling: Participants are selected because they are willing and available to be studied. Snowball sampling: The researcher asks participants to identify other participants to become members of the sample.

12. Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved. John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition 6.12 What Permissions Are Needed: Obtaining Permission Institutional or organizational (e.g., school district) Site-specific (e.g., secondary school) Individual participants Parents of participants who are not considered adults Campus approval (e.g., university or college) and Institutional Review Board (IRB)

13. Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved. John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition 6.13 Linking Data Collection to Variables and Questions Flow of ActivitiesExample Identify the variable Operationally define the variable Locate data (measures, observations, documents with questions and scales) Collect data on instruments yielding numeric scores Self-efficacy for learning from others Level of confidence that an individual can learn something by being taught by others 13 items on a self-efficacy attitudinal scale from Bergin (1989) Scores of each item ranged from 0-10 with 10 being “completely confident”

14. Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved. John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition 6.14 Information to Collect: Types of Data Measures An instrument is a tool for measuring, observing, or documenting quantitative data. Types of instruments –Performance measures (e.g., test performance) –Attitudinal measures (measures feelings toward educational topics) –Behavioral measures (observations of behavior) –Factual measures (documents, records)

15. Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved. John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition 6.15 Locating or Developing an Instrument for Data Collection Look in published journal articles Run an ERIC search and a descriptor for the instrument you want in an online search to see if there are articles that contain instruments Check Tests in Print Check Mental Measurements Yearbook published by the Buros Center at the University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE (http:unl.edu/Buros) Develop your own instrument

16. Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved. John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition 6.16 Criteria for Choosing a Good Instrument Have authors developed the instrument recently? Is the instrument widely cited by other authors? Are reviews available for the instrument? Does the procedure for recording data fit the research questions/hypotheses in your study? Does the instrument contain accepted scales of measurement? Is there information about the reliability and validity of scores from past uses of the instrument?

17. Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved. John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition 6.17 Reliability Reliability: Scores from measuring variables that are stable and consistent Example: Bathroom scale Types of reliability –Test-retest (scores are stable over time) –Alternate forms (equivalence of two instruments) –Alternate forms and test-retest –Inter-rater reliability (similarity in observation of a behavior by two or more individuals) –Internal consistency (consistent scores across the instrument)

18. Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved. John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition 6.18 Validity Validity: Scores from measuring variables that are meaningful Types of validity –Content (representative of all possible questions that could be asked) –Criterion-referenced (scores are a predictor of an outcome or criterion they are expected to predict) –Construct (determination of the significance, meaning, purpose, and use of the scores)

19. Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved. John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition 6.19 Scales of Measurement Nominal (categorical): Categories that describe traits or characteristics participants can check Ordinal (categorical): Participants rank order a characteristic, trait, or attribute Interval (continuous): Provides “continuous” response possibilities to questions with assumed equal distance Ratio (continuous): A scale with a true zero and equal distances among units

20. Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved. John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition 6.20 Procedures for Administering the Data Collection Develop standard written procedures for administering an instrument Train researchers to collect observational data Obtain permission to collect and use public documents Respect individuals and sites during data gathering (ethics)