1. Powerpoint presentation by Jim Foley
Chapter 10
Intelligence
Powerpoint presentation
by Jim Foley
© 2013 Worth Publishers

2. Overall question to consider:
Chapter Overview
Overall question to consider:
does each of us have an inborn level of talent, a general mental capacity or set of abilities, and can that level be measured and represented by a score on a test?
Definitions of intelligence
One ability or many?
The role of creativity and emotional intelligence
How to construct tests to try to assess intelligence
Intelligence stability, change, and extremes
Genetic vs. environmental influences
Group differences in ability
Racial difference or cultural test bias?
Click to reveal all bullets.

3. “Definition” of Intelligence
Intelligence tests are a series of questions and other exercises which attempt to assess people’s mental abilities in a way that generates a numerical score, so that one person can be compared to another.
Intelligence can be defined as “whatever intelligence tests measure.”
Your college entrance test measures how good you are at scoring well on that test.
Click to reveal bullets.
It is hard to argue with this definition of intelligence other than to point out that it’s pretty much a tautology (a circular reasoning statement that really doesn’t say much). However, the text goes out on a limb and puts a little meaning into the concept (next slide).

4. Definition of Intelligence: Beyond the Test?
The text defines intelligence,
whether it’s math ability or a rainforest dweller’s understanding of plants, as the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.
No animation
Note that this definition from the text makes reference to knowledge, and correlates with it, but is focused on ability, especially adaptability. Not surprisingly, psychologists tend to define “intelligence” in a way that allows psychologists to fit the definition.
The picture from the text is meant to represent the “understanding of plants.”

5. Intelligence: Single or Multiple?
Is intelligence one general ability or several specific abilities?
Charles Spearman
general intelligence [g]
Louis Thurstone
7 linked clusters of abilities
Howard Gardner
8 intelligences
Robert Sternberg
3 intelligences
Creativity and intelligence
5 components
Emotional intelligence
4 components
No animation.

6. General Intelligence, also known as g
Charles Spearman ( ) performed a factor analysis* of different skills and found that people who did well in one area also did well in another. Spearman speculated that these people had a high “g” (general intelligence).
*Factor analysis refers to a statistical technique that determines how different variables relate to each other; for example whether they form clusters that tend to vary together.
Click to reveal bullets.
Instructor: see if students can guess what is not clearly stated in the text, that “g” stands for “general.” This may be a good demonstration of hindsight bias; it will seem obvious if told, but not so obvious if you right away ask, “why did he call this ‘g’?”
Factor analysis is a statistical technique to determine how different variables relate to each other, for example whether they form clusters that tend to vary together (correlate).

7. Thurstone’s Seven Clusters of Abilitiesg
Louis Thurstone ( ) disagreed with the idea of one general measure and trait of overall intelligence.
Thurstone found that the results of 56 skill tests fell into 7 clusters.
However, further analysis showed that people who were strong in one cluster tended to be strong in other clusters.
Verbal comprehension
Inductive reasoning
Word fluency
Spatial ability
Memory
Perceptual speed
Numerical ability
Click to reveal bullets. (List comes up after second bullet.)
Louis Thurstone disagreed with the idea of one general measure and trait of overall intelligence.

8. Multiple Intelligences
The “savant syndrome” refers to having isolated “islands” of high ability amidst a sea of below-average cognitive and social functioning.
Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
Howard Gardner (b. 1943) noted that different people have intelligence/ability in different areas.
Research and factor analysis suggests that there may be a correlation among these intelligences.
Stephen Wiltshire (b. 1974) is limited in his social and overall cognitive skills by autism, but has extraordinary visual memory. Wiltshire was able to draw this picture of the Tokyo skyline from memory after a 30-minute helicopter ride and a view from the top of a skyscraper. The existence of the savant syndrome suggests that intelligence can exist in parts.
Click to reveal Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences.
Narrative linking to above: “Howard Gardner feels that even discounting the “savant syndrome,” different people have different strengths.” Acknowledging all of these abilities means honoring strengths and success in areas other than verbal and math ability.

9. Howard Gardner’s Eight Intelligences
No animation.
In case a student asks, Howard Gardner has considered adding “moral” intelligence and “spiritual”/”existential” intelligence to his list, but does not consider them to have adequate empirical support.

10. Intelligence and Success
“Success in life” is impossible to define. However, wealth tends to be related to intelligence test scores, PLUS:
focused daily effort/practice, taking 10 years to achieve success-level expertise.
social support and connections.
hard work and energetic persistence (grit).
Click to reveal bullets.
Wired Communications PhotoDisc 46 OS46090

11. Sternberg’s Intelligence Triarchy
Robert Sternberg (b. 1949) proposed that “success” in life is related to three types of ability.
Analytical intelligence: solving a well-defined problem with a single answer
Creative intelligence: generating new ideas to help adapt to novel situations
Practical intelligence: expertise and talent that help to complete the tasks and manage the complex challenges of everyday life
Click to show three types.
This is referred to as the “triarchic” (three-part) model.
The first type of intelligence is the best fit for the early definition we encountered in this chapter: intelligence is what intelligence tests measure.
The definition of “practical” intelligence, like the example earlier of the rainforest resident who understands plants, is hard to separate from the concept of expertise. This intelligence may include expertise but also include the ability to handle situations that do not draw just upon previous experience. Some people are skilled with fixing machines or managing people, even when it’s a situation they have never seen before.

12. Click to replace “Strengths” column with “Other Considerations” column.
Clicking on the keyboard back arrow will bring back the strengths column.

13. Creativity
Creativity refers to the ability to produce ideas that are novel and valuable. [Creative intelligence involves using those ideas to adapt to novel situations.]
Convergent thinking is a left-brain activity involving zeroing in on a single correct answer.
Click to reveal definitions of convergent and divergent thinking.
How do people produce something new? Do some people have more creative ability than others?
Note that this definition of creativity is slightly different than the definition for creative intelligence, which is not just concerned with the production of ideas but also with the function of those ideas. Creative intelligence involves using creativity to adapt to novel situations.
There is no correct answer to the question about chess. Some might say that playing well is more about expertise and practice, while others might note that at the highest levels, someone has to be generating new options, new strategies, and counterstrategies.
See if students can come up with examples of creativity beyond the artistic vocations. Possible answers include entrepreneurship, generating hypotheses and explanations in science, generating and proving theorems in mathematics, and inventive problem solving in any form of engineering.
One last example familiar to most college students that may generate debate: is it creative, or just derivative/rip-off, when people do mashups (videos, music, images) involving sampling of the work of others?
Creativity uses divergent thinking, the ability to generate new ideas, new actions, and multiple options and answers.
Does chess involve creativity?

14. Robert Sternberg’s Five Components of Creativity
Creative environment: having support, feedback, encouragement, and time and space to think
Venturesome personality: tending to seek out new experiences despite risk, ambiguity, and obstacles
Intrinsic motivation: enjoying the pursuit of interests and challenge, without needing external direction or rewards
Click to show blocks.
These are ideas of Robert Sternberg (b. 1949), the same researcher who wrote about three general areas of intelligence. These “components” are really contributing factors that help foster creative production.
You can add comments to each of these, using the analogy of playing with blocks. For example,
expertise: the building blocks we use to build new ideas.
imagination: the ability to see new ways that the blocks could fit together.
venturesome personality: the willingness to manipulate the blocks and try combinations that might not work.
intrinsic motivation: the desire to build with the blocks just because it’s fun, even when no one is watching or suggesting it.
creative environment: having a place you can play and build with the blocks as much as you want, with help available if you want it.
Expertise: possessing a well-developed base of knowledge
Imaginative thinking: having the ability to see new perspectives, combinations, and connections

15. To Boost Creativity: Four Strategies
Pursue an interest until you develop expertise.
Allow time for incubation (“sleeping on it”) with your attention away from projects, during which unconscious connections can form.
Allow time for mental wandering and aimless daydreaming with no distractions.
Improve mental flexibility by experiencing other cultures and ways of thinking.
Click to reveal bullets.
These strategies may work especially well for creative problem-solving, but also may work for creative artistic expression.

16. Social and Emotional Intelligence Emotional intelligence
Social intelligence refers to the ability to understand and navigate social situations.
Emotional intelligence
involves processing and managing the emotional component of those social situations, including one’s own emotions.
Automatic animation.
Note that these definitions link emotional intelligence to social intelligence. The four components of emotional intelligence on the next slide also correlate with social success. This means that other emotional skills, such as modulating extreme emotions (e.g. staying mentally healthy) are less central to this definition, except as they relate to social success.

17. Emotional Intelligence
Components of
Emotional Intelligence
Benefits of
Emotional Intelligence
People with high emotional intelligence often have other beneficial traits, such as the ability to delay gratification while pursuing long-term goals.
The level of emotional intelligence, including the skill of reading the emotions of others, correlates with success in career and other social situations.
Recognizing emotions in facial expressions, stories, and even in music
Perceiving emotions
Being able to see blended emotions, and to predict emotional states and changes in self and others
Understanding emotions
Modulating and expressing emotions in various situations
Managing emotions
Click to reveal more about each component.
Introducing this slide: “emotional intelligence can be defined by four components identified on a test by Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso (2002, 2008):”
In this case, “modulating” means not allowing emotions get out of control; having one’s emotions be a connective rather than a disruptive force in social situations.
Click to reveal sidebar.
The second bullet point relates to the struggles of people on the autism spectrum who have difficulty in this area and sometimes in all areas of emotional intelligence, even if overall intelligence test scores are in the normal range.
Using emotions
Using emotions as fuel and motivation for creative, adaptive thinking

18. Intelligence and Brain Anatomy
“Genius” seems to correlate with:
overall brain size.
the size of some brain regions such as the parietal lobe.
high brain activity in the frontal and parietal lobes.
extra gray matter (brain cell bodies, seen as more brain surface area/convolutions).
extra white matter (axons) leading to high connectivity among different regions.
Intelligence and Brain Functioning
Intelligence in action seems to involve:
activity of the front part of the frontal lobes to organize and coordinate information
Click to reveal bullets.
Instructor: either before or after the bullets (or both), you could ask students, “would you say that intelligence correlates with the size of the brain, or with the brain’s complexity?
“being in shape”; using less energy to solve problems than the brains of “normal” people.

19. Intelligence and Processing Speed
Verbal and general intelligence test scores correlate with the:
speed of retrieving information from memory.
speed of receiving and processing sensory and perceptual information.
Q: Did you process the tic tac toe game deeply enough to say whether it was an X or an O in each of the now-empty squares?
Click to reveal bullets. When the question appears, four squares in the game will become empty.
The text suggests that intelligence should enhance the processing of sensory memory alone, but here we have added processing of the game results to help prime recall of the missing Xs and Os.
A click will bring the Xs and Os back.

20. Assessing Intelligence
Assessment refers to the activity and the instruments used to measure intelligence. The challenge is to make these instruments valid (measure what they are supposed to measure) and reliable (yielding the same score if administered again, even if administered by someone else).
Why Try to Measure Intelligence?
to study how (and why) people differ in ability
to match strengths and weaknesses to jobs and school programs
to help the “survival of the fittest” process; trying to select the people who have the greatest abilities. This was the position of eugenicist Francis Galton ( ).
Click to reveal bullets.
Left sidebar: This material is optional, with a definition not made clear in the text and a reference to validity and reliability that doesn’t show up at this point in the book. Delete the whole box if you feel it’s unnecessary.
The word eugenics was invented by the Englishman Francis Galton in 1883 to denote the ‘science of the biological improvement of humans. The first half of the 1900s saw governments use laws, and sometimes violence, to interfere in reproductive decisions; these actions ranged from enforced sterilization to mass murder. In the 1920s and 1930s, the United States led the world in eugenic legislation. By 1938, 29 states had passed sterilization laws and doctors had performed more than 30,000 involuntary vasectomies (for males) and salpingectomies (for females). Most Americans saw eugenics as a beneficial and progressive policy. A poll by a national magazine in 1937 reported that 63 percent of Americans supported the compulsory sterilization of habitual criminals while 66 percent endorsed the sterilization of mental defectives.
Remind students that eugenics was supported by many famous American scientists and psychologists who defended involuntary sterilization by claiming it was “socially responsible” scientific activism. They were willing to force a medical procedure on other people, denying them children, in the hope of improving humanity. In Buck v. Bell (1927), the U.S. Supreme Court ruled (8-1) that Virginia could forcibly sterilize the “unfit” for the supposed “protection and health of the state.” The decision is considered one of the worst in the history of the Supreme Court.

21. Predicting School Achievement: Alfred Binet
Problem: in the late 1800s, a new law in France required universal education even for those without the ability to succeed with the current instruction.
Solution: Alfred Binet devised tests for children to determine which ones needed help.
Binet hoped to predict a child’s level of success in regular education.
Click to reveal bullets.
The plan, and the hope of France’s minister of public education, was to assess children in a systematic way rather than relying on teacher judgment (which might be biased, but was also not “scientific” even if it was more accurate).

22. Intelligence: Growing with Age?
Alfred Binet assumed that all children follow the same course of development, some going more quickly, and others more slowly.
Binet’s tests attempted to measure mental age--how far the child had come along on the “normal” developmental pathway.
The implication was that children with lower ability were delayed (with a mental age below their chronological age), and not disabled; with help, they could improve.
Click to reveal bullets.
Alfred Binet’s assumed that all children follow the same course of development, some going more quickly, others more slowly. This implied that children with lower ability were mainly delayed, not disabled. Tests attempted to measure “mental age”--how far the child had come along on the “normal” developmental pathway.

23. Binet  Stanford-Binet
Lewis Terman, of Stanford University, adapted Alfred Binet’s test, adding new test items and extending the age range into adulthood.
Terman also tested many California residents to develop new norms, that is, new information about how people typically performed on the test.
The result was the Stanford-Binet intelligence test.
William Stern’s scoring (1914) of the Stanford-Binet test resulted in the concept of IQ, the Intelligence Quotient.
Binet reported scores as simply one’s mental age; a 10 year old with below average intelligence might have a mental age of 8.
William Stern preserved Binet’s comparison of mental to chronological age as: ratio/quotient.
Click to reveal bullets.
Answer to the question on the slide: the 10-year-old is scored as 8/10 x 100 = 80.
You can now ask students: “Is William Stern’s calculation of IQ a better way of presenting a score than “mental age?” Lets test it by seeing if it works with adults, as Terman hoped. What IQ do you get if a 16 year old scores as well as a 20 year old (20/16 = 5/4 = IQ 125). Now try it with a 50 year old scoring as well as a typical 20 year old. Oops…IQ would be 20/50... IQ = 40.
Coming up soon, under the topic of standardization, is a new way of calculating IQ by simply comparing your raw score to the general population of adults who took the test. We will soon see why the book says here, “about 2/3 of people fall between 85 and 115 [in IQ].”
Terman proposed using IQ tests to classify children; he believed IQ was inherited and was the strongest predictor of one's ultimate success in life. Terman was a prominent member of the Human Betterment Foundation, which supported the promotion and enforcement of compulsory and involuntary sterilization laws in California.
Q: What IQ score do we get for

24. What do scores mean? What to do if you score low on an IQ test?
Lewis Terman, of Stanford University, began with a different assumption than Binet; Terman felt that intelligence was unchanging and innate (genetic).
Later, Terman saw how scores can be affected by people’s level of education and their familiarity with the language and culture used in the test.
Binet
Study, and develop self-discipline and attention span.
Terman
Click to reveal bullets.
Eugenics is the idea that society can be improved by deliberate selection, that is, keeping people with undesired traits from reproducing. Thus, Terman’s hypothetical comment about removing inferior genes from the population. It is not clear whether Terman’s changing views about influences on test scores changed his views of whether people could be improved or still had “inferior” genes.
Eugenics has been making a comeback in recent years with the development of new reproductive technologies. Once again, it is supported by many researchers and psychologists. Distinguished scientists, including several Nobel Prize-winners, have supported genetic screening bordering on eugenics. James Watson, the American biologist who helped discover DNA in 1953, said in 2003 that he backed genetic manipulation to make people more intelligent and better looking. “If you really are stupid, I would call that a disease,” he said. “The lower 10 percent who really have difficulty, even in elementary school, what's the cause of it? A lot of people would like to say, ‘Well, poverty, things like that.’ It probably isn't. So I'd like to get rid of that, to help the lower 10 percent.”--Richard Ingram, “EUGENICS: Stupidity should be cured—Watson,” DarwinAwards, 19 June 2003, at
Remind students that attitudes like this were prevalent in Germany during World War II.
Remove your genes from the population
(eugenics).

25. Aptitude vs. Achievement
Achievement tests measure what you already have learned. Examples include a literacy test, a driver’s license exam, and a final exam in a psychology course.
Aptitude tests attempt to predict your ability to learn new skills.
The SAT, ACT, and GRE are supposed to predict your ability to do well in future academic work. IQ
SAT scores (verbal + quantitative)
If the SAT is an aptitude test, should it correlate with IQ?
Click to reveal bullets and graphic.
Why do we say that aptitude should correlate with intelligence? Because according to one definition, intelligence refers to an ability to adapt and handle challenges, and is not a measure of existing knowledge. By this definition, “intelligence” would give one more aptitude, more likelihood of performing well in the future.
Remind students that this is a scatterplot; it’s as if each blue dot is a person positioned by that person’s SAT and IQ scores.
Notice that although there is a strong correlation (+.82) in this sample of 14- to 21- year olds, the SAT separates out some above-average IQ people from others. In other words, IQ scores do not do a good job of distinguishing among people with IQ’s over 120 (presuming the SATs measure anything meaningful at all). You can remind students that men typically do better than women on SATs, yet women have a greater success rate in college; why do they think this is?

26. David Wechsler’s Tests: Intelligence PLUS
The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) measure “g”/IQ and have subscores for:
verbal comprehension.
processing speed.
perceptual organization.
working memory.
No animation.
WAIS and WISC Test items include:
describing similarities and differences between objects or between concepts.
doing math problems, presented as story problems, while being timed.
being tested on speed of decoding, translating symbols to numerals.
assembling blocks into prescribed patterns while being timed (pictured in the text and on this slide).
digit span retention and re-ordering (working memory).
vocabulary knowledge and general knowledge.
question and sentence comprehension and expression.
arranging related pictures in chronological/story sequence.
picture completion.

27. Principles of Test Construction
In order for intelligence or other psychological tests to generate results that are considered useful, the tests (and their scores) must be:
standardized.
reliable.
No animation.
valid.

28. Standardization
Many intelligence tests generate a raw score based on the number of answers correct, but can we turn this into a number that tells us how smart/capable a person is compared to the general population?
Standardization means defining the meaning of scores based on a comparison with the performance of others who have taken the test before.
Click to reveal bullets.
Standardization, in the form described here, has also been called “norming” a test. ‘Norming” refers to determining what the “norm” is for typical, randomly selected people taking the test, so that you can compare an individual score to the norm. This norm is described by the normal curve, which we’ll see again on the next slide.
William Stern compared our intelligence test score to others by finding a “mental age” of people who scored on average the way we did.
A newer method of generating an intelligence test score is to determine where your raw score falls on a distribution of scores by people of your chronological age.

29. Standardization: How “Normal” is Your Score?
If we stacked a bunch of Weschler Intelligence Tests (by people your age) in a pile placed by raw score (number of test items correct), there would be a few very high scores and a few low scores, and a big pile in the middle; this bell-shaped pile is called the normal curve. We will call the average raw score “IQ 100.”
 Number of people with this score 
Comparing your score to this standard set of scores: if you score higher than 50 percent of people, you your IQ is 100.
If your score is higher than 98 percent of the population, your IQ is around what number?
Click to highlight the curve.
The answer to the question on the slide: if your raw score was higher than 98 percent of the people, your IQ would be around 130, where only about 2.1 percent of the population scored higher.

30. Re-Standardization and the Flynn Effect
Re-Standardization: Re-testing a sample of the general population to make an updated, accurate comparison group, in case people are smarter than they used to be when the test was first made.
The Flynn Effect:
 Performance on intelligence tests has improved over the years, worldwide.
Click to reveal example.
Explaining the Flynn effect: “hybrid vigor” (increased genetic mixing produces more vigorous offspring than inbreeding), nutrition, education, parental involvement, smaller families, may lead to improved intelligence.
Implication of the Flynn Effect: Test scores need to be adjusted so that “average” means “like the average score of TODAY’s general population.” --[Foley] Question for extension: Why might the average scores in 1920 only rate a 76 IQ compared to a 2010 population? Hint: What happened to the population at least males, in the six years before 1920? Foley’s hypothesis, in addition to the ones suggested in the book pp : Maybe WWI killed, wounded, and disrupted the education of a lot of people.
--[Foley] Question for understanding, duplicated on the next slide if you want it on screen: You took an IQ test last week and got an IQ result of 120, and then, after decades of the Flynn effect, the test got restandardized this week. Today, you took the same test and got exactly the same number of items correct. Your new IQ score is most likely to be:
a. 105
b. 120
c. 128
Answer: a.
Help students think this out: the IQ is now standardized so that your raw score is compared to a post-Flynn effect population (SMARTER). Compared to this newer, smarter, group, your number of items correct might not seem so great, it will drop, it might even no longer seem to be above average.

31. Test your understanding
You took an intelligence test last week and were assigned a number of 120. Then, after decades of the Flynn effect, the test was restandardized this week. Today, you took the same test and got exactly the same number of items correct. Your new intelligence test score is most likely to be:
105
120
128
No animation.
The correct answer is ‘a’ [105].
Help students think this out: the intelligence test is now standardized so that your raw score is compared to a post-Flynn effect population (supposedly SMARTER). Compared to this newer group, your number of items correct might not seem so great; it might even be below average.
There is debate regarding whether the rise in IQ scores corresponds to a rise in intelligence, or a rise in knowing the skills related to taking IQ tests.

32. Reliability and Validity
A test or other measuring tool is reliable when it generates consistent results.
A test or measure has validity if it accurately measures what it is supposed to measure.
Split-half reliability: do two halves of the test yield the same results?
Test-retest reliability: will the test give the same result if used again?
Content validity: the test correlates well with the relevant criterion, trait, or behavior
Predictive validity: the test predicts future performance (e.g. an aptitude test relates to future grades)
Click to reveal bullets about reliability.
If your height was measured with a ruler made of stretchy material, it would not be a reliable ruler.
Question for understanding: how does this stretchy ruler fail the two tests of reliability?
Click to reveal bullets about validity.
The yardstick, though reliable, would not be a valid measure of height.
If your height was measured with a ruler made of stretchy material, what would be the problem?
If your height was measured with a yardstick on which the units were too small, what would be the problem?

33. Predictive Validity: Only in Broad Ranges
At the higher range of weights and success, weight is less of a valid predictor of success of football linemen.
No animation.
I have added some lines to the diagrams; the blue box refers to the points over a large weight range which form a general correlation/trend represented by the blue line.

34. Dynamics of Intelligence
Are intelligence test scores stable or do they change with age?
No animation.

35. Stability of Intelligence during Aging
Evidence for change/decline
Evidence for stability
Cross-sectional studies examine people of different ages all at once.
Older adults do not perform as well as younger adults on intelligence tests.
What factors could explain this?
What is different about these different populations other than their chronological age?
Longitudinal studies track the performance of one group of people, or cohort, over time.
This method yields evidence that intelligence remains stable, or even increases, over time.
What could account for this result?
What are the shortcomings of this method?
Click for change/decline bullets.
The problem with the cross-sectional method is that the older adults are not just older, but they were also raised under different economic, educational, family, and cultural conditions.
Click for stability bullets.
One shortcoming of this method is that testing the same group repeatedly could have helped them perform better on the test over time.
Another shortcoming is that those in the cohort who were still alive at the end of the study may have been the more healthy and more intelligent numbers of cohort.

36. Putting the evidence together
Stability of Intelligence during Aging
Putting the evidence together
Can we combine the information on this chart and form a general impression about whether intelligence declines with age?
No animation.
[This slide could be used as a summary of the previous two slides, or in place of those slides.]
It would be hard to form one clear conclusion from these mixed results. One could decide whether the shortcomings of one study method are more problematic than the problems of the other. This would help to decide which type of study provides a less accurate picture of what happens to a typical person or cohort of people with age, all other factors being unchanging between young age and old.

37. Which type of intelligence?
Stability of Intelligence during Aging:
Based on this chart, at what age might you do best at completing a crossword puzzle quickly?
Which type of intelligence?
No animation.
Even though younger people have faster processing speed, the better vocabulary of older people allows them to complete crossword puzzles more quickly. It looks like people at about age 63 might do best.
Note that this slide presupposes that there are different kinds of intelligence; does this imply the single-number IQ score is problematic?

38. Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence
Fluid intelligence refers to the ability to think quickly and abstractly.
Click to reveal bullets.
The wisdom that comes with age may include social understanding, humility, and expert knowledge about life in general. Our thinking may become less distorted by emotional factors.
Fluid intelligence allows the young to make great contributions in mathematics; crystallized intelligence allows the old to make great contributions in literature.
Crystallized intelligence refers to accumulated wisdom, knowledge, expertise, and vocabulary .

39. Stability of Intelligence Test Scores Over the Lifespan
Pushing toddlers to learn does not seem to help much. Only by age four is a child’s performance on intelligence tests a predictor of future performance on intelligence tests.
Based on the results of a longitudinal study depicted in this chart, does intelligence test score at age 11 predict intelligence test score at age 80?
Click to show chart.
The chart does show a correlation between intelligence test scores at these different ages. Review the problem with a longitudinal study: those who survived to age 80 may not be a representative sample of the original cohort.

40. Intelligence and Longevity
In a Scottish longitudinal study, 11-year-olds with higher intelligence test scores lived longer and more independently and were less likely to develop Alzheimer’s Disease.
In a study of nuns , those with lower verbal ability were later more likely to develop Alzheimer’s Disease, which includes a shorter lifespan.
Click to reveal chart.
The text does not suggest an explanation for the association between intelligence test score and longevity.

41. Extremes of Intelligence
The Wechsler Intelligence Scale is set so that about 2 percent of the population is above 130 and about 2 percent of the population is below 70.
No animation.
Very High Intelligence, Gifted
Intellectual Disability

42. Extremes of Intelligence
“Intellectual disability” refers to people who
have an IQ around 70 or below.
have difficulty with adaptive skills, such as:
conceptual skills (literacy and calculation).
social skills, including making safe social choices.
practical daily living skills such as hygiene, occupational skills, and using transportation.
Although some people with high intelligence test scores can seem socially delayed or withdrawn, most are “successful.”
“Gifted” children, like any children, learn best with an appropriate level of challenge.
Segregated, “tracked” programs, however, often unfairly widen achievement gaps.
Click to reveal bullets.
The child in the picture at the top left has Down syndrome. He is shown happily painting in a classroom with children of varying abilities.
The child in the picture at bottom right is in a college statistics class; he is 10 years old. At both ends of the intellectual aptitude spectrum, labeling and tracking children has the danger of becoming a self fulfilling prophecy because of the power of expectations and the availability of educational opportunities. Education of all children in an integrated classroom can prevent these problems, although they require greater individualization to assure appropriate levels of challenge.

43. Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence (Nature and Nurture)
Even if we agree for argument’s sake that “success” in life is caused in part by some kind of intelligence, there is still a debate over the origin of that intelligence.
Are people “successful” because of inborn talents?
Or are they “successful” because of their unequal access to better nurture?
Information to tease out the answers can be found in some twin and adoption studies.
Click to reveal bullets.
Note that no commonly accepted definition of “successful” exists so that the entire question is probably better suited to philosophy than psychology. You might ask students to try to define “success”—socioeconomic status? self-reported claims to happiness? achievement (another difficult word to define)? celebrity status? public acclaim?

44. Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence Studies of Twins Raised Apart
What explains this difference?
What explains this difference?
Findings from these studies indicate that both nature and nurture affect intelligence test scores.
Click to show questions and answers about the graph.
The first two bars differ because of differences in rearing/environment, since the genetics did not change; rearing the twins apart reduced the similarity. The first and third bar may differ because of genetics, since they were reared together in both cases; having more identical genes increased the similarity of intelligence scores.

45. Heritability Clarifying Heritability
If three people had exactly the same education, nutrition, and experiences, some psychologists speculate that genes might be responsible for perhaps 40 percent of their intelligence; nurture certainly made a big impact.
However, such identical nurturing (which is actually impossible) could not create differences in intelligence.
With identical nurture, the heritability of intelligence would be virtually 100 percent.
When you see variation in intelligence between two or more people, the heritability of that trait is the amount of variation that is apparently explained by genetic factors.
This does NOT tell us the proportion that genes contribute to the trait for any one person.
Click to reveal bullets.
The slide has appeared before in the chapter on nature and nurture.
The heritability of a trait also does NOT tell us whether genetics explain differences between groups/populations. Height is 90 percent heritable in general, but as a group, people are taller in this century than last, or in South Korea compared to North Korea. This is probably not caused by genetics but by nurture (nutrition).
Click to reveal sidebar bullets.
Note: there is a similar slide in the “Nature-Nurture” chapter which originally used intelligence as the example and now has been revised to discuss sociability.
Of course identical nurture is not possible; tiny differences, even in utero, can begin the epigenetic process of turning genes on and off.

46. Genetic Influences on Intelligence
Identical twins seem to show similarity in specific talents such as music, math and sports.
The brains of twins show similar structure and functioning.
There are specific genes which may have a small influence on ability.
Click to reveal bullets.

47. Adoption Studies
With age, the intelligence test scores of adoptees looks more and more like that of their ____________ parents.
(adoptive? birth/biological?)
In another study, heritability of intelligence test scores continued to increase beyond age 16.
Click to reveal chart.
Answer: birth/biological parents. This will seem counterintuitive to many students. Suggest that they notice that their parents may be having increasingly less influence on their talents.
You may want to restate this result in a way that ties back to the heritability concept; the heritability of intelligence test scores increases with age.

48. Environmental Influences on Intelligence
Environment has more influence on intelligence under extreme conditions such as abuse, neglect, or extreme poverty.
Tutored human enrichment has a larger impact on compensating for deprivation than on boosting intelligence under normal conditions.
Click to reveal bullets.
When environment/nurture varies more, its influence on intelligence increases.
Pictured in the slide is a Romanian orphan who suffered from deprivation of human interaction.
The impact of tutored enrichment can be compared to the impact of multi-vitamins, which make a bigger difference for those who were malnourished than for those who eat healthy meals.
The impact of educational videos does not seem to be great for any group, especially when it substitutes for face to face interaction.

49. Schooling and Intelligence
Preschool and elementary school clearly have at least a temporary impact on intelligence test scores.
College can have a positive impact on intelligence test scores if students have:
motivation and incentives.
belief that people can improve.
study skills, especially the willingness to practice.
Click to reveal bullets.
Instructor: you might ask students, “What might it imply about intelligence test scores if they can be affected by schooling and attitude?”

50. Understanding Group Differences in Test Scores
Now, let’s look at:
gender differences.
“racial” differences.
understanding the impact of environment.
within-group differences and between-group differences.
the impact of test bias and stereotype threat on performance.
Click to reveal bullets.

51. Supposed Male-Female Ability Differences
Male/female difference related to overall intelligence test score.
No animation.
Instructor: clarify for students that this graph of scores by IQ level does not replace the normal curve. It IS the same people in the normal curve, but split into percentage male and percentage female. Males with IQ ‘x’ plus females at IQ ‘x’ equals 100 percent of the people at IQ ‘x’.
You can ask students, then, what they can say about boys and girls and their ranges of IQ scores? A final click reveals an answer at the bottom of the slide.
Boys are more likely than girls to be at the high or low end of the intelligence test score spectrum.

52. Male-Female Ability Differences
Girls tend to be better at spelling, locating objects, and detecting emotions.
Girls tend to be more verbally fluent, and more sensitive to touch, taste, and color.
Boys tend to be better at handling spatial reasoning and complex math problems.
It is a myth that boys generally do better in math than girls. Girls do at least as well as boys in overall math performance and especially in math computation.
Click to reveal bullets.
Question to raise with students: do you think that these differences are caused by genetics and strengths developed through natural selection, or because boys and girls are raised differently?

53. Tests of Male and Female Strengths
Standard
After you have clicked and the classroom picture and moving rock have disappeared, have students do the “male” block configuration test first.
Please practice using this slide in slide show mode.
[Answer: the two right most circles. I moved and rotated some of the ones from the text to make it harder to simply look at the book for answers]
Then do the “female” object location memory test: ask who can remember where the rock started and where it ended up.

54. Ethnic/Racial Differences in Intelligence Test Scores
The bell curve for African American intelligence test scores is centered at 85. For non-African Americans, the average is 100.
Whatever the cause of this score difference, it is incorrect to use this information to predict the score of an individual.
The green triangle shows African-Americans scoring higher than the average non-African-Americans. How can we interpret this group difference in average intelligence test scores? We will look at the issue of test bias and other factors affecting scores for perceived minorities.
Click to animate graph.
Click to reveal remaining bullets.
The following statement perhaps gives too much away before seeing if students can figure out the concept on the next slide, but I included here as material for explaining the next slide: “But first we must train ourselves to see that differences between groups can be caused by environmental factors (even identical twins can have differences in height, sexuality, and ability).
Remind students that even the term “African American” has little or no meaning; is it self-defined or can someone determine who fits in this category? Do Egyptians and Algerians count? Are Bantu peoples to be lumped in with Khoisan? Is the American “one drop of blood” rule to be used to determine “African American-ness,” or a different standard from Brazil or Trinidad?
Remind students that a future slide notes that racial categories are not distinct genetically.
But first…

55. Understanding Group Differences: Within-group vs. Between-group
Group differences, including intelligence test score differences between so-called “racial groups,” can be caused by environmental factors.
Below: the difference between groups is caused by poor soil (environment).
No animation.
Instructor: have students think about what they assume causes the difference between the two groups of flowers. After you ask this question and hear some answers, click to reveal that both groups of flowers are from the same seed packet. Again, even identical twins can have differences in height, sexuality, and ability.

56. The “Racial” Intelligence Test Score Gap
Racial categories are not distinct genetically and are unscientific.
Both “whites” and “blacks” have higher intelligence test scores than “whites” of the 1930s.
“Whites” may have more access to “fertile soil” for developing their potential, such as:
schools and educational opportunities.
wealth, nutrition, support, and educated mentors.
relative freedom from discrimination.
Click to reveal bullets.

57. Two Problems Called “Bias”
Are Tests Biased?
Bias 1: In the popular sense of the word, intelligence tests are often biased. Often, tests have questions which rely on knowledge of mainstream culture. For example, the SAT writing prompt demanded students discuss the authenticity of reality television shows.
Bias 2: Aptitude tests seem to predict future achievement equally well for various ethnic groups, and for men and women.
Test makers must prevent “bias” in the popular sense of the word: making it easier for one group than another to score high on a test.
Test makers also strive to prevent the scientific form of bias: making it easier for one group than for another to have their abilities accurately assessed, and their future performance predicted.
Click to reveal bullets.
Click to reveal sidebar bullets.
A question to ask students to test their learning: “what quality of good tests have we just identified in the last sentence?”...predictive validity.
Angela Garcia, executive director of the SAT program, defended the prompt: “It’s really about pop culture as a reference point that they would certainly have an opinion on.” You might ask students if they agree.
Note: “racial” differences persist on skills such as repeating digits backward. Do these skills also depend on cultural experience?

58. The Effect of Stereotype Threat
Study result: Blacks/African-Americans scored higher when tested by Blacks rather than being tested by Whites. Why?
Study result: Blacks/African-Americans did worse on intelligence tests when reminded of their racial/ethnic identification right before the test. Why?
Click to reveal three questions.
Instructor: 
Simple answer to all three questions:  They fell victim to the effect known in psychology as Stereotype Threat (explained next slide). You can change the title of the slide if you just want to test students on the name of the concept, or you can ask them to explain how it works before you go to the next slide.
NOTE:  Some students may be uncomfortable with the way the terms "Black" and even "race" are used in the study cited by the text. Although we can't make an exact determination of someone's race, we can determine whether someone identifies themselves as being part of a stereotypically lower-status group, and that's what's relevant in this study, that's what apparently triggered the effects on performance, as we'll see on the next slide.
Study result: Women did worse on math tests than men, except when they are told first that women usually do as well as men on the test. Why?

59. The Power of Expectations
Stereotype threat refers to a feeling that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype.
Stereotype threat may interfere with performance by making people use their working memory for worrying instead of thinking.
This worry is self- confirming/fulfilling: the effect of minority status on performance is worsened by worry about that effect.
Click to reveal bullets.
A self fulfilling prophecy occurs when the act of making a prediction about the future leads to that prediction coming true. Is stereotype threat an example of a self fulfilling prophecy?
The book’s definition of stereotype threat includes “self-confirming” as part of the definition.
One possible implication of the stereotype threat is that programs to support members of minority groups may hurt people’s performance when they imply that minorities need more help than others, especially when it is implied that help is needed inherently rather than situationally (the fundamental attribution error). Of course, this implication needs to be measured versus other factors (such as ongoing discrimination or socio-economic disadvantage).

60. Issues Related to Intelligence Tests
Is discriminating among college or job applicants based on test scores better than discriminating based on appearance? Can test scores be used as Alfred Binet suggested: to identify those who would benefit from educational interventions? Can a person’s worth and potential be summed up in one intelligence test score?
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