1. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 An Evidence-Based Approach to the Practice of Educational Leadership First Edition Ronald W. Rebore Angela L. E. Walmsley Saint Louis University This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: Any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; Preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or part, of any images; Any rental, lease, or lending of this program.

2. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Chapter 2: Evidence-Based Leadership in School and School District Administration

3. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Instructional Objectives To learn how to create a culture of evidence in a school district that will enhance the administrative leadership function to meet the vision and mission of the district To provide information that can be used to engage stakeholders in discourse, which will strengthen the administrative leadership function To explain how the Transcendental Leadership Theory operates in public school districts from an evidence-based perspective

4. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Importance of Mission in Evidence- Driven Administrative Leadership A mission of an organization is an organic entity that is subject to ongoing change. While the mission to educate students is the only reason to create a school, this is a misleading mission. What does “to educate” mean?

5. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Importance of Mission in Evidence- Driven Administrative Leadership The mission must be continually evaluated to refine and define the changing nuances. The mission is viewed as the detailed and specific goals that direct the governance and administration of the school district. The mission requires a structure that identifies areas of responsibility.

6. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Importance of Mission in Evidence- Driven Administrative Leadership This mission is operationalized through the hiring of administration that supports the program. This structure is the evidence that the district is working toward fulfulling its mission.

7. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Administrative Framework in Evidence- Driven Administrative Leadership The most current theories emphasize the leadership qualities of administrators rather than managerial competency. Members of the school community want administrators who can develop and articulate their vision through effective communication, and implement the vision through effective administrative strategies.

8. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Importance of Mission in Evidence- Driven Administrative Leadership Conversely, administrators should empower the school community to discourse. How can administrators find meaning in their work?

9. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Importance of Mission in Evidence- Driven Administrative Leadership Transcendental dimension of leadership Leadership means a way of life of dedication. Without transcendency, administrators may neglect the reasons why they became educational leaders. The transcendental nature of leadership requires a lifelong process of discerment.

10. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Importance of Mission in Evidence- Driven Administrative Leadership Transcendental leadership requires an appreciation for evidence in decision making. The pluralism of the U.S. requires discourse in an attempt to examine and explain values in relation to the values of others in the educational community. This dialogue recognizes the importance of evidence in the formulation of understanding.

11. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Elements of Transcendental Administrative Leadership and the Evidence-Based Perspective Transcendental Leadership Theory: a person acts from the totality of who he or she is as a human being. Decisions are influenced by more than immediate circumstances and the impact of decisions are far-reaching, influencing reactions to future situations. It is necessary to operationalize evidence- based leadership.

12. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Elements of Transcendental Administrative Leadership and the Evidence-Based Perspective Six evidential elements in Transcendental Leadership Theory: 1.Utilizes a reflection paradigm 2.Practices the principle of subsidiarity 3.Acts from a political base 4.Acts from a sense of duty and responsibility 5.Advocates social justice 6.Formulates professional positions through discourse

13. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Elements of Transcendental Administrative Leadership and the Evidence-Based Perspective Utilizes A Reflection Paradigm: Reflection acknowledges the importance of practice as the phenomenon upon which theory and foundational values are based. Know and understand firsthand what is occurring in schools. This knowledge establishes an evidential base to evaluate educational theory.

14. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Elements of Transcendental Administrative Leadership and the Evidence-Based Perspective All theory is predicated on a system of values and beliefs. The relationship between practice, theory, and philosophy is reciprocal. Practice can be considered the first level of reflection, theory the second level, and philosophy the third. Reflection is the process and the paradigm is the method.

15. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Elements of Transcendental Administrative Leadership and the Evidence-Based Perspective Figure 2.1: Reflection Paradigm Third Level of ReflectionPhilosophical Principles Second Level of Reflection Leadership Theory Principles First Level of ReflectionLeadership Practice

16. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Elements of Transcendental Administrative Leadership and the Evidence Based Perspective Practices the Principle of Subsidiarity: Decisions should be made at the lowest possible level in a school or district. This decision making empowers staff. The superintendent becomes a mentor to administrators, and the principal becomes a mentor to other staff and teachers. As a mentor, he or she must help others recognize how their values influence their behaviors.

17. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Elements of Transcendental Administrative Leadership and the Evidence Based Perspective Debureaucratization is the simplification of the organization of schools and districts. Debureaucratization can lead to a better utilization of human, financial, and material resources. The overarching concern is to maintain quality while streamlining schools and districts.

18. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Elements of Transcendental Administrative Leadership and the Evidence Based Perspective The principle of subsidiarity requires the development of a comprehensive evidential monitoring system. Evidential monitoring reports allows the administrator an informed view into the school or district.

19. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Elements of Transcendental Administrative Leadership and the Evidence Based Perspective Acts from a Political Base What constitutes a political base can be understood in a series of tensions: –The Responsibilities of the National Government versus the Responsibilities of the State Government –The Rights of the National Government versus the Rights of the Individual

20. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Elements of Transcendental Administrative Leadership and the Evidence Based Perspective –The Rights of the State Government versus the Rights of the Individual –Constitutional Rights versus Ethical Rights –The Rights of the General Public versus the Rights of Special Interest Groups –The Rights of the Marginalized versus the Influence of the Decision Makers

21. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Elements of Transcendental Administrative Leadership and the Evidence-Based Perspective Acts from a Sense of Duty and Responsibility: The Categorical Imperative: (Immanuel Kant) Always act in such a way that you can also will that the maxim of your action should become a universal law. –This approach is appropriate because administrators have the education, experience, and setting to utilize their intellectual abilities and this method.

22. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Elements of Transcendental Administrative Leadership and the Evidence-Based Perspective The Stoic Approach: Marcus Aurelius Antoninus stated that reason can help a person lead a life that will provide self-control and courage in the pursuit of truth and justice. –Reason is the bond that unites all people in the pursuit of goodness because reason enacts universal laws of conduct. –Administrators should carry out responsibilities through the rational approach: courage, self-control, truthfulness, and trustfulness.

23. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Elements of Transcendental Administrative Leadership and the Evidence-Based Perspective Pragmatism: Dewey called for the active participation of students in the school to develop leadership into adulthood. –In a democracy, the majority cannot nullify the rights of the minority. –Truth is relative to time and place. –A person’s educational future cannot be predetermined by elementary school performance.

24. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Elements of Transcendental Administrative Leadership and the Evidence-Based Perspective –Every child must be considered in terms of intellectual, social, physical, and emotional needs. –Problem solving becomes the basis of instruction with significant input from students. –All parents, students, teachers, staff, and administrators must be empowered or no segment is truly empowered.

25. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Elements of Transcendental Administrative Leadership and the Evidence-Based Perspective –Two conditions to empowerment: People must be allowed to make decisions about significant issues People must have sufficient time and information to make informed decisions. –All members of the school community must recognize they have a stake in the success of the school and must participate in all decision making.

26. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Elements of Transcendental Administrative Leadership and the Evidence-Based Perspective –In pragmatism, there are seven implications for evidence-based duty and responsibility: 1.How an administrator carries out duties and responsibilities will have significant effect on all members of the school community. 2.The manner in which an educational leader exercised duties and responsibilities is indicative of inner life and effectiveness in decision making. 3.A good criterion for self evaluation of effectiveness is the wish for everyone to act the way the administrator does.

27. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Elements of Transcendental Administrative Leadership and the Evidence-Based Perspective 4. For an administrator, duty and responsibility are best understood if he or she learned how to follow the leadership of others. 5. Professional duties and responsibilities are founded upon reflective human reason. 6. Performance of duty and fulfilling of responsibilities have a social dimension. 7. Trusting other member of the school and district is the foundation of effective decision making.

28. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Elements of Transcendental Administrative Leadership and the Evidence-Based Perspective Advocates Social Justice: Justice is the guide that regulates how people live our their lives as members of a community. Justice is important to contemporary society because we can now see the effects of others’ actions with immediacy.

29. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Elements of Transcendental Administrative Leadership and the Evidence-Based Perspective Entitlement: people have evidential claims that are properly due to them. Social claims include: services, goods, money, fidelity, and respect. Acknowledging and respecting evidential claims are essential to the practice of leadership.

30. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Elements of Transcendental Administrative Leadership and the Evidence-Based Perspective Two aspects to evidential entitlement: –People are entitled to respect, integrity, liberty and equality, as they are human beings –An administrator is entitled to others’ trust that the administrator will perform his or her responsibilities Effective evidential transcendental leadership cannot exist unless these entitlements are operationalized.

31. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Elements of Transcendental Administrative Leadership and the Evidence-Based Perspective Administrators are charged with the responsibility of determining the social distribution of services versus scarcity. As education contributes to the quality of society, citizens are responsible for the financing of that education.

32. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Elements of Transcendental Administrative Leadership and the Evidence-Based Perspective Three types of social justice: –Distributive justice: responsibilities of society toward the individual –Legal justice: responsibilities of an individual to society –Commutative justice: responsibilities that exist between people The many U.S. Supreme Court rulings involving social justice and education demonstrate the magnitude of this issue.

33. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Elements of Transcendental Administrative Leadership and the Evidence-Based Perspective Restitution: the implementation of an entitlement in addition to restoring what was withheld. Contractarianism: political society should be designed by the people who live in it. This contract among citizens establishes educational systems.

34. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Elements of Transcendental Administrative Leadership and the Evidence-Based Perspective John Rawls: the best principles of justice for the basic structure of society are those that would be the objects of an original agreement in the establishment of society and that are derived by free rational persons as an initial position of equality. These principles form the basis for all future agreements and specify how evidential decision making will take place.

35. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Elements of Transcendental Administrative Leadership and the Evidence-Based Perspective The policy formulation process and policies used by boards and administration are examples of how original agreements live in society. The manner in which administrators implement and interpret policies can be guided by the principles of fairness.

36. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Elements of Transcendental Administrative Leadership and the Evidence-Based Perspective Rawls’ two principles in which people would choose to implement fairness: 1.Each person is to have an equal right to a system of liberties that is compatible to the liberties available to all people. These principles are to be ranked. Liberty can only be restricted for the sake of liberty.

37. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Elements of Transcendental Administrative Leadership and the Evidence-Based Perspective 2. Social and economic inequalities must benefit the least advantaged and equal opportunity must exist for all. This principle must also be ranked over efficiency. This principle is operationalized through the following legislation: The Civil Rights Act of 1964 as Amended Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 Title V of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990

38. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Elements of Transcendental Administrative Leadership and the Evidence-Based Perspective Formulates Professional Positions through Discourse: Administrators must engage the constituents of the district and schools in public discourse before making recommendations to the board. Important recommendations requiring public discourse involve tax revenues and budgeting.

39. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Elements of Transcendental Administrative Leadership and the Evidence-Based Perspective Jürgen Habermas views public discourse as the method used to resolve conflicting interests and results in more appropriate and just decisions. Pluralism of contemporary life makes final answers about most issues impossible. Educational issues cannot be prescriptive. Pluralism does not preclude the establishment of evidential guidelines.

40. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Elements of Transcendental Administrative Leadership and the Evidence-Based Perspective The central principal of Habermas’s discourse is that the validity of a norm or guideline rests on the acceptability of the consequences of the guideline by all participants. Each person must be willing and able to appreciate the perspective of others.

41. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Elements of Transcendental Administrative Leadership and the Evidence-Based Perspective Everyday communication can lead to influencing based on reason rather than coercion through the process of mediation. Universalization acts as the transcendental-pragmatic rule of argumentation

42. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Elements of Transcendental Administrative Leadership and the Evidence-Based Perspective Three levels of presuppositions for argumentation: 1.Logical-semantic level 2.Dialectical level of procedures 3.Rhetorical level of processes Rules of public discourse are implicit and intuitive and must allow for free argumentation.

43. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Elements of Transcendental Administrative Leadership and the Evidence-Based Perspective The content must not be predetermined, but the process is institutionalized. Universalization: only those guidelines can be valid which meet the approval of the participants in the practical discourse.

44. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Discussion Questions and Statements 1.Describe the current state of affairs in educational leadership and how if affects the evidence-based leadership skills of administrators. 2.What is evidence-based leadership? 3.What are the essential elements of this model? 4.Explain the reflection paradigm. 5.What is the principle of subisdiarity, and how does it lead to de-bureaucratization of schools and school districts?

45. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Discussion Questions and Statements 6. Define political base. 7. Explain how the categorical imperative of Immanuel Kant can help a superintendent or principal discharge his or her responsibilities. 8. How can the stoic philosophy of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus help superintendents and principals understand their responsibility to make decision based on evidence? 9. What is the relevance of pragmatism to evidence-based leadership?

46. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Discussion Questions and Statements 10. Describe the various forms of social justice, and explain how they affect evidence-based leadership. 11. Elucidate Rawls’s principles of justice in relation to evidence-based leadership. 12. Identify and explain Jürgen Habermas’s principles of public discourse. 13. What deters some superintendents and principals from initiating discourse and dialogue? 14. Why is discourse a necessity in evidence- based leadership?