1. Learning the Consequences of Behavior
Operant Conditioning
Learning the Consequences of Behavior

2. Instrumental Conditioning
The Law of Effect-Thorndike
Behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed be unfavorable consequences become less likely.
Instrumental Conditioning
A procedure in which an organism learns that certain responses are instrumental in producing desired effects in the environment

3. Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning Operant (behavior)
A synonym for instrumental conditioning
Comes from Skinner’s emphasis on how an organism learns to “operate on” its environment to produce an effect
Operant (behavior)
Is a behavioral response that has some effect (consequence) on an organism’s environment
Operant Chamber- Skinner Box
A chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer, with an attached devices to record the animal’s rate of response

5. Skinner and Skinner Box
Image- Courtesy of B.F. Skinner Foundation

6. Components of Operant Conditioning
Reinforcers
A consequence that increases the probability that a response will occur again (strengthens the behavior it follows
Positive Reinforcers
Positive stimuli that act like rewards
Negative Reinforcers
Removal of an unpleasant stimuli
Escape conditioning
Occurs when an organism learns that a particular response will terminate an aversive stimuli
Avoidance Conditioning
Occurs when an organism responds to a signal in a way that prevents an aversive stimuli

8. Punishment
Presents an aversive stimuli or removes a pleasant stimuli to decrease the frequency of a behavior
Disadvantages
It doesn’t eliminate behavior merely suppresses it
Not effective unless it immediately follows the behavior
Punishment becomes associated with the punisher-so the punisher is feared
Organism being punished may learn to relate to others in an aggressive way
Punishment makes clear what behaviors are incorrect, but doesn’t provide any demonstration of desired behaviors

9. Punishment Can work if used wisely… Punish the behavior not the person
Punish immediately
Use a severe enough punishment to eliminate the behavior
Explain and reinforce more appropriate behaviors

10. Punishment or Negative Reinforcement?

11. Forming and Strengthening Operant Behavior
Shaping
An operant conditioning process in which successive approximations of a behavior are reinforced until the desired behavior pattern emerges.
Secondary Reinforcement (Conditioned)
Primary reinforcers-an innately satisfying reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need (food,water, pain relief)
Conditioned or secondary reinforcer- a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer. (MONEY)
Delay and size of reinforcement
Operant conditioning is strongest when the delay in receiving a reinforcer is short and the reinforcer is large

12. Schedules of Reinforcement
Ratio schedules (fixed or variable) generally produce higher response rates than do interval schedules, and variable schedules (ratio or interval) generally produce greater resistance to extinction than do fixed schedules.

13. Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous reinforcement schedule
Every correct response receives a reward
Partial or Intermittent reinforcement schedule
Reinforcement is received only some of the time
Fixed Ratio Schedules (FR)
Give a reward after a fixed number of responses
Variable-Ratio Schedules (VR)
Give a reward after an average number of responses
Fixed-Interval Schedules (FI)
Reward the first response displayed after a fixed time interval
Variable-Interval Schedule (VI)
Reward the first response displayed after a varying time interval
Schedules and Extinction
The partial reinforcement extinction effect
Demonstrates that it is more difficult to extinguish an operant behavior learned under a partial rather than a continuous reinforcement schedule

14. Cognition and Operant Conditioning
Latent learning
Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is some reason to demonstrate it
Cognitive map
A mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it. (Tolman)
Overjustification effect
The effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do. The person may now see the reward, rather than the intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task.

16. Other cognitive processes in learning
Learned Helplessness
Occurs when an organism believes that behaviors are not related to consequences
When people’s past experience leads them to believe that nothing they can do will change their lives, they tend to stop trying.
Insight
The sudden grasp of new relationships that are necessary to solve a problem and that were not learned in the past.
Kohler’s studies of chimpanzee problem-solving