1. Composition of Current and Alternative Jet Fuels Nov 3, 2011 Tim Edwards, AFRL Russ White, API

2. 2 DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A – Unclassified, Unlimited Distribution Bottom Line Up Front Approved and prospective alternative jet fuels (either 100% or blends) will be hydrocarbons very similar to current fuels Fuels are to be “drop-in” – no handling changes Most notable differences reduce the health effects of these fuels – Lower aromatics – Lower sulfur

3. 3 DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A – Unclassified, Unlimited Distribution Current Composition Limits in Jet Fuel Specifications Aromatics < 25 vol% by D1319 Naphthalenes < 3 vol% by D1840 (not naphthalene) “Light ends” controlled by flash and T10 “Heavy ends” controlled by freeze and T90 Density spec (0.775-0.84) requires cycloparaffins and/or aromatics Impurities indirectly limited by thermal stability Sulfur content limited Smoke point limits aromatics indirectly (naphthalenes more directly)

4. 4 DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A – Unclassified, Unlimited Distribution Aromatics in JP-8

5. 5 DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A – Unclassified, Unlimited Distribution Naphthalene Study Individual naphthalenes results reported in µg/mL; total naphthalenes in volume % (convert to µg/mL by multiplying by 1.06x10 4 ) Large standard deviations in concentrations within fuel classes Consistent results between current study and previous World Survey fuels Highest naphthalene in jet fuels and F-76, lowest in motor diesel Highest total naphthalenes in F-76 diesel, lowest in motor gasoline

6. 6 DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A – Unclassified, Unlimited Distribution Jet Compositional Space aromatics cycloparaffins n- + iso-paraffins 25% aromatic limit in D1655,D7566 25 50 75 Avg: 53 n/iso, 28 cyclo, 19 aro World Survey ASTM D2425 currently used

7. 7 DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A – Unclassified, Unlimited Distribution 51015202530 4597 Jet A 4598 Jet A 4599 Jet A 4600 Jet A 4626 Jet A 4658 Jet A C7C7 C 11 C 16 Limited by flash pointLimited by freeze point Jet GC-MS

8. 8 DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A – Unclassified, Unlimited Distribution GC X GC naphthalenes alkyl benzenes JP-8 (POSF 4751) Aromatics separated by class and carbon number

9. 9 DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A – Unclassified, Unlimited Distribution Baseline Fischer-Tropsch Fuels n-paraffins Form basis of Research Report to support specification B-52, T-38 C-5, B-2, C-130, F-16, HH- 60, T-6, A-10, RQ-4 C-17, B-1, F-15 F-22, KC-135R

10. 10 DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A – Unclassified, Unlimited Distribution Sasol IPK/A Analysis Research Report to support specification based on similarity to petroleum jet

11. 11 DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A – Unclassified, Unlimited Distribution HRJs feedstock independent C 13 C 14 C 15 C 12 C9C9 C8C8 C 11 C 10 jatropha/algae oil jatropha oil camelina oil animal fat Salicornia oil F-T Intensity (arbitrary units) Time

12. 12 DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A – Unclassified, Unlimited Distribution SPK Compositional Space cyclo-paraffins iso-paraffins n-paraffins 15% cyclo limit in D7566 Sasol IPK Shell SPKS-8 ARA PSU cam HRJ tallow HRJ Gevo

13. 13 DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A – Unclassified, Unlimited Distribution Fuels from Woody Biomass Focus of DOE Biomass program Can yield fuels of atypical composition “Sugars” Lignin

14. 14 DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A – Unclassified, Unlimited Distribution Lignocellulosic Biomass 9 August 2015 “Sugars” “Pyrolysis Oil” alcoholsjet “alcohol-to-jet” jet “direct fermentation” or “metabologic engineering” gasification syn gasjet Fischer-Tropsch “SPK” pyrolysis jet upgrading fermentation catalysis jet“catalytic renewable jet?” “pyrolytic renewable jet?”

15. 15 DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A – Unclassified, Unlimited Distribution Gevo Public Data

16. 16 DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A – Unclassified, Unlimited Distribution Summary Alternative aviation fuels will remain hydrocarbons, but… –Specifications will add more composition constraints –Molecular weight range may narrow (but still be ~8-14) –Blend stocks with a small number of HCs may exist –Relative proportion of hydrocarbon classes may shift –Sulfur will decrease, relative to current average of ~700 ppm –Blend stocks with and without aromatics will be seen Health benefits of alternative fuels currently not being given credit in evaluations of “drop-in” fuels

17. 17 DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A – Unclassified, Unlimited Distribution Turbine Engine Emissions AF, NASA, FAA supporting emissions testing for alternative jet fuels – The “usual” – NOx, CO, UHC, SOx – Particulates to support SAE E31 ARP –VOC, HAPS to develop database Significant data on ground (AAFEX etc.) Bottom line – alternative jet fuels are hydrocarbons, most emissions unchanged – Exception – particulates (soot), typically reduced

18. 18 DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A – Unclassified, Unlimited Distribution 18 AFRL Turbine Engine Research Transportable Emissions Lab (TERTEL) InstrumentMeasurement Condensation Particle Counter (TSI 3022A) Particle Number Scanning Mobility Particle Sizer (TSI 3936) Particle Size Distribution (D=4.0 - 570 nm) Tapered Element Oscillating Microbalance (R&P 1105) Particle Mass Concentration FTIR Analyzer (MKS 2030)CO 2, CO, NO x, SO x, HC species NDIR Analyzer (CA 602P)Diluted Sample CO 2 Smoke Sampler & Reflectometer (Photovolt Instruments Inc. 577) Smoke Number LECO Carbon Analyzer (RC-412)Elemental/Organic Carbon FID Analyzer (CA 600)Total Hydrocarbons Multi-Angle Absorption PhotometerParticle Mass Concentration

19. 19 DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A – Unclassified, Unlimited Distribution Emissions Collaboration DC-8 AFRL Emissions Trailer EPA Missouri S&T AEDC, NASA/GRC Aerodyne NASA/LaRC Emissions study conducted with multiple partners on modified NASA DC-8 (CFM56) – Jan ’09 – Multiple FT fuel blends (Sasol, Shell, 50/50, & 100%) Data reduction underway but clear PM reductions with FT fuel and blends

20. 20 DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A – Unclassified, Unlimited Distribution

21. 21 DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A – Unclassified, Unlimited Distribution AAFEX I

22. 22 DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A – Unclassified, Unlimited Distribution Higher impact at lower power –Consistent with previous studies (e.g. T63, CFM56, T701C, TF33) –Reduce HC aerosols –Reduce soot nuclei Increased role of paraffinic species on soot formation at higher power AAFEX CFM56 Particle Number EI Significantly lower particle number EI with FT fuels

23. 23 DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A – Unclassified, Unlimited Distribution AAFEX I (cont)

24. 24 DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A – Unclassified, Unlimited Distribution Ultralow Sulfur Jet Fuel 2009

25. 25 DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A – Unclassified, Unlimited Distribution Diesel Engine Evaluation with Alternative Fuels Similar engine performance (fuel conversion eff.) with JP-8, FT blend & diesel Higher engine exhaust temperatures (5-10%) with diesel at higher RPMs Slight reductions (5-10%) in engine BHP with JP-8 and FT blend –Lower fuel density and limits in fuel delivery system Impact of JP-8 and FT blend on emissions dependent on engine and condition Highly variable particle number data –Inherent non-continuous combustion in reciprocating engines Similar or lower smoke numbers with alt fuels Moderate reduction in PM mass Mostly lower CO (20-40%) and NO x (10-17%) emissions –Trends agree with previous measurements in 6.5L diesel Technical paper to be included in IASH 2009 proceedings