1. 1 IFT6255: Information Retrieval Text classification

2. 2 Overview Definition of text classification Important processes in classification Classification algorithms Advantages and disadvantages of algorithms Performance comparison of algorithms Conclusion

3. 3 Text Classification Text classification (text categorization): assign documents to one or more predefined categories classes Documents ? class1 class2. classn

4. 4 Illustration of Text Classification Science Sport Art

5. 5 Applications of Text Classification Organize web pages into hierarchies Domain-specific information extraction Sort email into different folders Find interests of users Etc.

6. 6 Text Classification Framework DocumentsPreprocessingIndexing Feature selection Applying classification algorithms Performance measure

7. 7 Preprocessing Preprocessing: transform documents into a suitable representation for classification task –Remove HTML or other tags –Remove stopwords –Perform word stemming (Remove suffix )

8. 8 Indexing Indexing by different weighing schemes: –Boolean weighing –Word frequency weighing –tf*idf weighing –ltc weighing –Entropy weighing

9. 9 Feature Selection Feature selection: remove non-informative terms from documents =>improve classification effectiveness =>reduce computational complexity

10. 10 Different Feature Selection Methods Document Frequency Thresholding (DF) –tf > threshold –tf*idf Information Gain (IG)

11. 11 Different Feature Selection Methods 2­statistic (CHI) or –A: w and C j B: w and not C j –C: not w and C j D: not w and not C j Mutual Information (MI)

12. 12 Classification Algorithms Rocchio’s algorithm K-Nearest-Neighbor algorithm (KNN) Decision Tree algorithm (DT) Naive Bayes algorithm (NB) Artificial Neural Network (ANN) Support Vector Machine (SVM) Voting algorithms

13. 13 Rocchio’s Algorithm Build prototype vector for each class prototype vector: average vector over all training document vectors that belong to class c i Calculate similarity between test document and each of prototype vectors Assign test document to the class with maximum similarity

14. 14 Analysis of Analysis of Rocchio’s Algorithm Advantages: –Easy to implement –Very fast learner –Relevance feedback mechanism Disadvantages: –Low classification accuracy –Linear combination too simple for classification –Constant  and  are empirical

15. 15 K-Nearest-Neighbor Algorithm Principle: points (documents) that are close in the space belong to the same class

16. 16 K-Nearest-Neighbor Algorithm Calculate similarity between test document and each neighbor Select k nearest neighbors of a test document among training examples Assign test document to the class which contains most of the neighbors

17. 17 Analysis of KNN Algorithm Advantages: –Effective –Non-parametric –More local characteristics of document are considered comparing with Rocchio Disadvantages: –Classification time is long –Difficult to find optimal value of k

18. 18 Decision Tree Algorithm Decision tree associated with document: –Root node contains all documents –Each internal node is subset of documents separated according to one attribute –Each arc is labeled with predicate which can be applied to attribute at parent –Each leaf node is labeled with a class

19. 19 Decision Tree Algorithm Recursive partition procedure from root node Set of documents separated into subsets according to an attribute Use the most discriminative attribute first (highest IG) Pruning to deal with overfitting

20. 20 Analysis of Decision Tree Algorithm Advantages: –Easy to understand –Easy to generate rules –Reduce problem complexity Disadvantages: –Training time is relatively expensive –A document is only connected with one branch –Once a mistake is made at a higher level, any subtree is wrong –Does not handle continuous variable well –May suffer from overfitting

21. 21 Naïve Bayes Algorithm Estimate the probability of each class for a document: –Compute the posterior probability (Bayes rule) –Assumption of word independency

22. 22 Naïve Bayes Algorithm –P(Ci): –P(dj|ci):

23. 23 Analysis of Naïve Bayes Algorithm Advantages: –Work well on numeric and textual data –Easy to implement and computation comparing with other algorithms Disadvantages: –Conditional independence assumption is violated by real-world data, perform very poorly when features are highly correlated

24. 24 Basic Neuron Model In A Feedforward Network Inputs x i arrive through pre-synaptic connections Synaptic efficacy is modeled using real weights w i The response of the neuron is a nonlinear function f of its weighted inputs

25. 25 Inputs To Neurons Arise from other neurons or from outside the network Nodes whose inputs arise outside the network are called input nodes and simply copy values An input may excite or inhibit the response of the neuron to which it is applied, depending upon the weight of the connection

26. 26 Weights Represent synaptic efficacy and may be excitatory or inhibitory Normally, positive weights are considered as excitatory while negative weights are thought of as inhibitory Learning is the process of modifying the weights in order to produce a network that performs some function

27. 27 Output The response function is normally nonlinear Samples include –Sigmoid –Piecewise linear

28. 28 Backpropagation Preparation Training Set A collection of input-output patterns that are used to train the network Testing Set A collection of input-output patterns that are used to assess network performance Learning Rate-η A scalar parameter, analogous to step size in numerical integration, used to set the rate of adjustments

29. 29 Network Error Total-Sum-Squared-Error (TSSE) Root-Mean-Squared-Error (RMSE)

30. 30 A Pseudo-Code Algorithm Randomly choose the initial weights While error is too large –For each training pattern Apply the inputs to the network Calculate the output for every neuron from the input layer, through the hidden layer(s), to the output layer Calculate the error at the outputs Use the output error to compute error signals for pre- output layers Use the error signals to compute weight adjustments Apply the weight adjustments –Periodically evaluate the network performance

31. 31 Apply Inputs From A Pattern Apply the value of each input parameter to each input node Input nodes computer only the identity function FeedforwardInputs Outputs

32. 32 Calculate Outputs For Each Neuron Based On The Pattern The output from neuron j for pattern p is O pj where and k ranges over the input indices and W jk is the weight on the connection from input k to neuron j FeedforwardInputs Outputs

33. 33 Calculate The Error Signal For Each Output Neuron The output neuron error signal  pj is given by  pj =(T pj -O pj ) O pj (1-O pj ) T pj is the target value of output neuron j for pattern p O pj is the actual output value of output neuron j for pattern p

34. 34 Calculate The Error Signal For Each Hidden Neuron The hidden neuron error signal  pj is given by where  pk is the error signal of a post- synaptic neuron k and W kj is the weight of the connection from hidden neuron j to the post-synaptic neuron k

35. 35 Calculate And Apply Weight Adjustments Compute weight adjustments W ji by W ji = η  pj O pi Apply weight adjustments according to W ji = W ji + W ji

36. 36 Analysis of ANN Algorithm Advantages: –Produce good results in complex domains –Suitable for both discrete and continuous data (especially better for the continuous domain) –Testing is very fast Disadvantages: –Training is relatively slow –Learned results are difficult for users to interpret than learned rules (comparing with DT) –Empirical Risk Minimization (ERM) makes ANN try to minimize training error, may lead to overfitting

37. 37 Support Vector Machines Main idea of SVMs Main idea of SVMs Find out the linear separating hyperplane which maximize the margin, i.e., the optimal separating hyperplane (OSH) Nonlinear separable case Nonlinear separable case Kernel function and Hilbert space FX f(x) x x x x 0 0 0 0 f(0) X  f(X)

38. 38 SVM classification Maximizing the margin is equivalent to: Introducing Lagrange multipliers, the Lagrangian is: Dual problem: subject to: The solution is given by: The problem of classifying a new data point x is now simply solved by looking at the sigh of

39. 39 Analysis of SVM Algorithm Advantages: –Comparing with ANN, SVM capture the inherent characteristics of the data better –Embedding the Structural Risk Minimization (SRM) principle which minimizes the upper bound on the generalization error (better than the Empirical Risk Minimization principle) –Ability to learn can be independent of the dimensionality of the feature space –Global minima vs. local minima Disadvantage: –Parameter tuning –kernel selection 0 0 0 0 x x x x 0 0 0 0 x x x x

40. 40 Voting Algorithm Principle: using multiple evidence (multiple poor classifiers=> single good classifier) Generate some base classifiers Combine them to make the final decision

41. 41 Bagging Algorithm Use multiple versions of a training set D of size N, each created by resampling N examples from D with bootstrap Each of data sets is used to train a base classifier, the final classification decision is made by the majority voting of these classifiers

42. 42 Adaboost Main idea: -The main idea of this algorithm is to maintain a distribution or set of weights over the training set. Initially, all weights are set equally, but in each iteration the weights of incorrectly classified examples are increased so that the base classifier is forced to focus on the ‘hard’ examples in the training set. For those correctly classified examples, their weights are decreased so that they are less important in next iteration. Why ensembles can improve performance: - Uncorrelated errors made by the individual classifiers can be removed by voting. - Our hypothesis space H may not contain the true function f. Instead, H may include several equally good approximations to f. By taking weighted combinations of these approximations, we may be able to represent classifiers that lie outside of H.

43. 43 Adaboost algorithm Given: m examples where Initialize For t = 1,…,T:  Train base classifier using distribution  Get a hypothesis with error for all i = 1…m  Choose.  Update: where is a normalization factor (chosen so that will be a distribution). Output the final hypothesis:

44. 44 Analysis of Voting Algorithms Advantage: –Surprisingly effective –Robust to noise –Decrease the overfitting effect Disadvantage: –Require more calculation and memory

45. 45 Performance Measure Performance of algorithm: –Training time –Testing time –Classification accuracy Precision, Recall Micro-average / Macro-average Breakeven: precision = recall Goal: high classification quality and computation efficiency

46. 46 Comparison Based on Six Classifiers Classification accuracy: six classifiers (Reuters-21578 collection) 1234 AuthorDumaisJoachimsWeissYang 1Training9603 7789 2Test3299 3309 3Topics118909593 4IndexingBooleantfcFrequencyltc 5SelectionMIIG-  7MeasureBreakevenMicroavg.Breakeven 8Rocchio61.779.978.775 9NB75.27273.471 10KNNN/A82.386.385 11DTN/A79.478.979 12SVM878686.3N/A 13VotingN/A 87.8N/A

47. 47 Analysis of Results SVM, Voting and KNN are showed good performance DT, NB and Rocchio showed relatively poor performance

48. 48 Comparison Based on Feature Selection Classification accuracy: NB vs. KNN vs. SVM (Reuter collection) # of featuresNBKNNSVM 1048.66 ± 0.1057.31 ± 0.260.78 ± 0.17 2052.28 ± 0.1562.57 ± 0.1673.67 ± 0.11 4059.19 ± 0.1568.39 ± 0.1377.07 ± 0.14 5060.32 ± 0.1474.22 ± 0.1179.02 ± 0.13 7566.18 ± 0.1976.41 ± 0.1183.0 ± 0.10 10077.9 ± 0.1980.2 ± 0.0984.3 ± 0.12 20078.26 ± 0.1582.5 ± 0.0986.94 ± 0.11 50080.80 ± 0.1282.19 ± 0.0886.59 ± 0.10 100080.88 ± 0.1182.91 ± 0.0786.31 ± 0.08 500079.26 ± 0.0782.97 ± 0.0686.57 ± 0.04

49. 49 Analysis of Results Accuracy is improved with an increase in the number of features until some level Top level = approximately 500-1000 features: accuracy reaches its peak and begins to decline SVM obtains the best performance

50. 50 Conclusion Different algorithms perform differently depending on data collections Some algorithms (e.g. Rocchio) do not perform well None of them appears to be globally superior over the others; however, SVM and Voting are good choices by considering all the factors