1. Clauses

2. What is a clause?
A clause is a group of related words containing a subject and a verb.

3. Which the difference between
a phrase and a clause?
A clause is different from a phrase in that a phrase does not include a subject and a verb relationship.

4. How many types of clauses are there?
Clauses come in different types: Independent [or main], Dependent [or Subordinate ]

5. What is an independent clause?
Main clauses has a subject and a predicate and expresses a complete thought.
It is the only type of clause that can sand alone as a sentence.
Conjunction cannot be include in your clauses.
Every main clause will follow this pattern:
subject + verb = complete thought.
Examples :
Lazy students whine Students = subject; whine = verb.
My dog loves pizza crusts Dog = subject; loves = verb.

6. What is a dependent clause?
It has a subject and a predicate, but DOES NOT express a complete thought.
It cannot stand alone as a sentence.
A subordinate clause will follow this pattern: subordinate conjunction + subject + verb = incomplete thought. Examples: Whenever lazy students whine. Whenever = subordinate conjunction; students = subject; whine = verb. Because my dog loves pizza crusts. Because = subordinate conjunction; dog = subject; loves = verb.

7. How many dependent clauses are there?
There are 3 types of dependent clauses:
Adjectives clause
Adverb clause
Noun clauses.

8. Adjectives clauses:
Modifies (describes) a noun or a pronoun.
May begin with a relative pronoun ( Who, whom, whose, that and which) or a relative adverb (when, where, or why)
Normally follows the word it modifies.
An adjetctive clause will follow this pattern: relative pronoun or adverb + subject + verb = incomplete thought
Examples:
Whom Mrs. Russell hit in the head with a chalk eraser.
Whom = relative pronoun; Mrs. Russell = subject; hit = verb.
Where he chews and drools with great enthusiasm. Where = relative adverb; he = subject; chews, drools = verbs.

9. There are two types of adjectives: essential or nonessential
a) Adjective essential:
Is necessary to make the meaning of a sentence clear.
It must not be set off by commas..
Example:
A dog that eats too much pizza will soon develop pepperoni breath.
b) Adjective nonessential:
Is not necessary to make the meaning of a sentence clear.
Always use commas to set off a nonessential clause.
My dog Floyd, who eats too much pizza, has developed pepperoni breath.

10. What is an Adverb Clause?
A group of words which contains a subject and a finite verb that describes or adds to the meaning of a verb, an adjective and another adverb.

11. 2. Adverb clauses:
Modifies (describes) a verb, and adjective or an adverb.
It tells when, where, how, why, to what extent, or under what conditions.
Examples:
Before I took the test, I studied for a long hour.
While walking, she listens to the radio.
3. Nouns clauses:
Is used as a noun within the main clause of a sentence.
You can use a noun clause as a subject, a direct and indirect object, an object of a preposition or a predicate nominate.
Example:
You really do not want to know what Aunt Nancy adds to her stew.

12. Adverb Clause can be divided into:
Result
Purpose
Place
Manner
Time
Reason
Concession
Contrast

13. 1. Adverb Clause of Time
These clauses are introduced by when, when, whenever, while, as, before, after, till, until, since and as soon as,

14. When he arrives, he will tell us the truth.
Examples:
When he arrives, he will tell us the truth.
Mary was dancing while John was singing.
The train left as we arrived.

15. I will stay with you until your mother comes home.
After he had got the money, he left home immediately.
(For more examples, pls. refer to the grammar notes.)

16. 2. Adverb Clause of Reason
These clauses are introduced by because, since, for and as, etc.

17. Examples:
I was late because I could not catch the bus.
Since I was late, I took a taxi.
The manager dismissed Mary, for she was very lazy.
As the weather was bad, we cancelled the picnic.

18. 3. Adverb Clause of Concession
These clauses are introduced by though, although, even though, no matter how , no matter what and as, etc.

19. Although he is small, he is very strong.
Examples:
Although he is small, he is very strong.
No matter how smart they are, they are required to do the revision.
No matter what the doctor did, the girl was still dead.

20. 4. Adverb Clause of Contrast
These clauses are introduced by whereas and while
Examples:
We took the train whereas Pete drove.
While Tom is a good math student, Pam does well in English.

21. 5. Adverb Clause of Result
These clauses are always linked with so that, so + adj. / adv. + that and such + a + noun + that, etc.

22. Tom was so weak that he could not run.
Examples:
Tom was so weak that he could not run.
It was such a strange story that no one believed it.

23. 6. Adverb Clause of Purpose
These clauses are always linked with so that, in order that, for fear that, in case, etc.

24. He arrived earlier, so that he would not be late.
They brought a lot of food for fear that they would be hungry during the trip.
She brought the credit card in case she did not have enough cash.

25. 7. Adverb Clause of Place
These clauses are introduced by where and wherever.
Nobody knows where he has been to.
He travels wherever he likes.

26. 8. Adverb Clause of Manner
These clauses are introduced by as, as if and as though.
Please do as I have told you.
* He cries as if he were mad.
* He speaks as though he were the boss.
* The subjunctive is used after as if and as though.

27. What is a relative clause?
A relative clause, also called an adjective clause, modifies a noun. A relative clause can modify any noun in the sentence: a subject, an object, or an object of a preposition.
A relative clause begins with a relative pronoun (who, whom, whose, which, that, where, when, why).
Sometimes the pronoun can be omitted. We will examine these cases later in the lesson.
Sometimes commas are required. We will examine these cases later in the lesson.

28. Forming relative clauses: relative pronouns as subjects
A relative pronoun can be the subject of the relative clause.
The politician is extremely happy.
She won by a landslide. 
The politician who won by a landslide is extremely happy.
This relative clause modifies the subject of the main clause.

29. Forming relative clauses: relative pronouns as subjects
I saw the driver of the blue van.
He caused the accident. 
I saw the driver of the blue van, who caused the accident.
This relative clause modifies the object of the main clause.
When the relative pronoun is the subject of the relative clause, use who, which, or that as the pronoun.
When the relative pronoun is the subject of the relative clause, it cannot be omitted.

30. Forming relative clauses: relative pronouns as objects
A relative pronoun can be the object of the relative clause.
The seafood wasn’t very good.
We ate the seafood last night. 
The seafood that we ate last night wasn’t very good.
This relative clause modifies the subject of the main clause.

31. Forming relative clauses: relative pronouns as objects of prepositions
A relative pronoun can be the object of a preposition in the relative clause.
The movie won an Academy Award.
I was talking to you about the movie. 
The movie I was talking to you about won an Academy Award. or
The movie about which (that) I was talking to you (about) won an Academy Award.
This relative clause modifies the subject of the sentence.

32. Forming relative clauses: relative pronouns as objects of prepositions
Last Tuesday, Jamie ran into an old friend.
She had gone to college with her. 
Last Tuesday, Jamie ran into an old friend with whom she had gone to college. or
Last Tuesday, Jamie ran into an old friend she had gone to college with.
This relative clause modifies the object of the main clause.

33. Forming relative clauses: relative pronouns as objects of prepositions
When the relative pronoun is the object of a preposition in the relative clause, you have several choices:
begin the clause with the preposition + whom/which
begin the clause with who, whom, which, or that, and put the preposition at the end of the clause
omit the pronoun and put the preposition at the end of the clause.

34. Summary of relative pronouns as subjects, objects, and objects of prepositions
relative pronouns as objects
relative pronouns as objects of prepositions
who (people)
which (things)
that (things)
do not omit
who(m) people
can be omitted
prep + whom/which
who(m)…prep
which…prep
that…prep
can be omitted but do not omit prep

35. Essential and nonessential relative clauses
An essential relative clause limits the meaning of the noun it modifies. It identifies or defines that noun in some way.
The man who is standing over there is a famous actor.
Which man?
The man who is standing over there.

36. Restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses
A non-essential relative clause gives additional or extra information that is not needed to identify the noun.
Mr. Stevens, who is standing over there, is the mayor of our town.

37. Restrictive and nonrestrictive relative clauses – pronoun use
Do not use the pronoun that in a non-essential relative clause. Use who or which instead.
X Mars, that is the fourth planet from the sun, is smaller than Earth.
Mars, which is the fourth planet from the sun, is smaller than Earth.

38. Restrictive and nonrestrictive relative clauses – comma use.
Use commas to isolate non-essential relative clauses. Do not use commas with essential relative clause.
Mars, which is the fourth planet from the sun, is smaller than earth.
The planet that has the largest rings is Saturn.

39. Beyond the basics – clauses of time, place & reason
When, where, and why can introduce relative clauses after nouns referring to time, place, and reason, as in these examples:
They are used in the same way as preposition + which.
Do you see a bench where (on which) we can sit down?
July 4, 1776 is the day when (on which) the Declaration of Independence was signed.
Do you know the reason why (for which) I joined the team?

40. Beyond the basics – modifying a clause
Relative clauses beginning with which can modify a clause, not just a noun. Use commas.
He always comes late, which really annoys me.

41. Beyond the basics – expressions of quantity
Relative clauses may contain an expression of quantity with of (e.g. some of, many of).
Use whom, which, and whose in with expressions of quantity.
Use commas.
The article contained a number of errors, most of which the editor was able to catch.
He has three brothers, none of whom have been as successful as he has.
We discussed the candidate, one of whose strengths was his experience working with computers.

42. Noun Clauses …
A noun clause is a subordinate clause that acts as a noun.
Usually start with a relative pronoun
Relative Pronouns: that, which, who, whom, whose
Acts like a noun or an adjective

43. Functions in Sentences Examples
Subject
Whoever travels the Chattahoochee River follows the yellow rafts gently floating down a peaceful track.
Direct Object
You must pack whatever you will need.
Indirect Object
You should give whoever waits at the camp a copy of your route.
Object of a Preposition
Robert Campbell settled trading camps in whatever regions the Hudson’s Bay Company sent him.
Predicate Nominative
(is a noun or pronoun that appears with a linking verb and renames, identifies, or explains the subject)
At 40, Campbell’s most notable achievement was that he established Fort Selkirk.

44. The Uses of Relative Pronouns Within the Clause
As a Subject:
that is within the Arctic Circle
The part of Alaska that is within the Arctic Circle is cold most of the year.
As a Direct Object:
(Reworded) I met whom last year
The explorer whom I met last year has never been to the North Pole.
As the Object of a Preposition:
(Reworded) little foliage can grow in which – obj of prep
The climate is one in which little foliage can grow.
As an Adjective:
whose sled left without him
Adj.
I saw a dog whose sled left without him.

45. More on Adverb Clauses and how these clauses function in sentences …
Remember that adverb clauses modify verbs, adjectives, adverbs, or verbals (gerund, participial, and infinitive phrases) by telling where, when, in what way, to what extent, under what condition, or why.
Modified Words
Examples
Verb:
The Yukon entered Canada’s confederation after a gold rush brought 100,000 people to the territory.
Adjective:
The miner’s children were nervous whenever he entered a tunnel.
Adverb:
Today’s dig lasted longer than the one yesterday.
Participle:
The miners, cheering whenever someone made a strike, were excited.
Gerund:
Digging wherever miners thought there was gold has left the Yukon full of old miners.
Infinitive:
The tired miners wanted to relax after the workday ended.