1. Unit 7: Ethical Considerations in HIV/AIDS Surveillance
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2. Warm Up Questions: Instructions
Take five minutes now to try the Unit 7 warm up questions in your manual.
Please do not compare answers with other participants.
Your answers will not be collected or graded.
We will review your answers at the end of the unit.
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3. What You Will Learn By the end of this unit you should be able to:
discuss the ethical principles of respect for persons, beneficence and justice in the context of HIV surveillance of high-risk populations
use correctly the terms related to ethical treatment of study participants
identify potential harms caused by behavioural surveillance of HIV
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4. What You Will Learn, Cont.
By the end of this unit you should be able to:
identify potential benefits resulting from HIV and behavioural surveillance
describe issues of confidentiality and how they relate to HIV surveillance
explain issues of informed consent and institutional review boards and how they relate to HIV surveillance among high-risk populations
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5. What are the Issues?
elevated risk of harm for people in high-risk populations, especially if their behaviour is illegal
stigma
confidentiality
informed consent
access to prevention and care services
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6. Three Ethical Principles
Respect for persons – study subjects are persons whose rights and welfare must be protected, not just passive sources of data
Beneficence – researchers should balance benefits and risks (physical and psychological harm) to individuals
Justice – risks and benefits from studies should be distributed fairly and evenly in populations
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7. Common Ethics Terms in Surveillance Studies
Participation bias – error due to differences in characteristics between those who participate in a survey and those who do not
Stigma – a mark of disgrace or shame
Confidentiality – keeping the identity of a participant and their test results secret
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8. Surveillance Study Ethics Terms, Cont.
Informed consent – protects freedom of choice and respects autonomy with regard to decisions affecting one’s body and health
Unlinked anonymous testing – when a sample of blood is tested for HIV after all information that could identify the source of the blood is eliminated from the sample
Linked anonymous testing – when the HIV result is linked to a patient’s other clinical data after all information that could identify the source of the blood is eliminated from the sample
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9. Ethical Considerations
Who will be required to report, what clinical information, with what personal identifiers, to whom?
How will the proposed system contribute to a more accurate characterisation of the HIV/AIDS epidemic?
How can you use experiences with other conditions, including those that bear stigma, to anticipate the willingness to report?
How will you merge data from the reporting system with data from other sources?
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10. Fear of Stigmatisation
Groups with legitimate fears of stigmatisation may include:
sex workers
injection drug users
prisoners
mobile populations
men who have sex with men
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11. Minimising Participation Bias
Participation bias can be minimised by using:
informed consent
absolute confidentiality
thoughtful plans about how data generated will be used and disseminated
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12. Low Level and Concentrated Epidemic Considerations
An effective surveillance system requires high-risk populations to be identified and accessible for:
regular monitoring of behaviour
risk markers
HIV infection
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13. Low Level and Concentrated Epidemic Considerations, Cont.
Two techniques for accessing high risk populations for surveillance include:
Using clinics and educational programs designed to meet the needs of people most vulnerable to HIV and its impact
Involving community members in designing and carrying out surveys
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14. Low Level and Concentrated Epidemic Considerations, Cont.
Publicising information about marginalised groups’ HIV infection and related behaviour requires careful consideration.
The general public may call for restrictive and prohibitive measures.
These measures drive high-risk behavior farther underground, complicating care and treatment and encouraging spread of HIV.
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15. Table 7.1. Potential Harms Caused by HIV/AIDS Surveillance
Type of Harm
Result
Physical
public attack, spouse/partner abuse, domestic violence
Legal
arrest, prosecution, especially with high-risk populations
Social
disclosure to family, workplace discrimination, loss of employment, isolation, loss of healthcare services
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16. Generalised Epidemic Considerations
There is less focus on high-risk populations.
With anonymous unlinked sero-surveillance activities, risks to individuals are usually low.
Surveillance activities must protect data that individually identify infected patients.
Take care to avoid inadvertently stigmatising groups or sub-regions.
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17. Potential Benefits of HIV Surveillance
guiding HIV prevention and care programmes
guiding STI and other services
raising public awareness of and sympathy for burden of disease in the population
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18. Potential Benefits of HIV Surveillance, Cont.
reducing stigma and effecting social change, especially around HIV infection
special benefits for certain high-risk populations, such as STI clinics specifically for sex workers
HIV treatment services for prisoners
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19. Confidentiality
Confidentiality protects subjects from adverse consequences that may arise if their personal information is known.
If confidentiality about HIV infection is violated, subjects may suffer discrimination.
Public health officers must maintain the confidentiality of individuals’ records to guard against accidental disclosure.
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20. Laws and Confidentiality
Laws may exist that protect research results from discovery during legal proceedings.
Be aware of particular provisions in your country’s laws that may:
complicate participation and confidentiality guarantees for certain individuals
require reporting of individuals with HIV infection
minimise risk to participants, such as laws that protect study results from discovery
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21. Ethics of Unlinked Anonymous Testing (UAT) without Informed Consent
UAT without informed consent is conducted only in clinical settings.
A specimen of blood originally collected for other purposes is used as follows:
All personally identifying information is removed from the specimen.
The blood is tested for HIV.
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22. Ethics and UAT UAT has been deemed ethical if:
No interaction takes place with the survey participant solely for the purpose of the surveys
Information that may inadvertently identify a person is not kept
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23. Advantages and Disadvantages of UAT
Privacy of the individual is maintained.
Participation bias is minimised.
Disadvantages
Tested individuals are not aware that they are being tested and cannot receive their test resuts or counselling.
This can be overcome by offering voluntary counselling and testing (VCT) at the sentinel site.
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24. Informed Consent
Researchers must present information to help the subject decide whether to participate, including:
the nature of the surveillance system
the procedures the project will entail
potential risks and benefits
assurance that participation is voluntary and confidential
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25. Informed Consent, Cont.
Whenever informed consent is obtained, participation bias is an important issue and should be considered in the analysis.
When HIV test results are to be given to individual subjects, confirmatory testing is required for positive specimens.
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26. Written Consent Forms
Written consent forms are required to document that the process of informed consent has occurred.
In some situations, verbal consent documented by the investigator may be adequate.
When individuals cannot give informed consent, surrogate consent should be obtained.
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27. Are Participation Gifts Ethical?
Incentives are appropriate for compensating participants for their time and expenses.
Excessive payments create both ethical and methodological problems:
An individual’s weighing of risks and benefits can be influenced by money or gifts.
By creating incentives for participation, the sample may not be fully representative.
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28. In Summary
When conducting HIV surveillance, you should be mindful of patient confidentiality, since persons with HIV/AIDS are often subject to physical, legal and social harms.
This includes obtaining informed consent and making use of institutional review boards.
Also, try to take advantage of potential benefits of surveillance, such as reducing stigma, guiding prevention and treatment programmes, etc.
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29. Warm Up Review
Take a few minutes now to look back at your answers to the warm up questions at the beginning of the unit.
Make any changes you want to.
We will discuss the questions and answers in a few minutes.
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30. Answers to Warm Up Questions
1. True or false? Because of the urgent need to treat and prevent HIV/AIDS, issues such as confidentiality and informed consent do not need to be addressed.
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31. Answers to Warm Up Questions
1. True or false? Because of the urgent need to treat and prevent HIV/AIDS, issues such as confidentiality and informed consent do not need to be addressed. False
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32. Answers to Warm Up Questions, Cont.
2. The principle of ‘beneficence’ refers to minimising risk to individuals in the areas of:
a. physical risk
b. psychological harm
c. stigmatisation
d. all of the above
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33. Answers to Warm Up Questions, Cont.
2. The principle of ‘beneficence’ refers to minimising risk to individuals in the areas of:
a. physical risk
b. psychological harm
c. stigmatisation
d. all of the above
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34. Answers to Warm Up Questions, Cont.
3. True or false? Providing large monetary or in-kind incentives is an ethical way to ensure that more participants agree to give informed consent.
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35. Answers to Warm Up Questions, Cont.
3. True or false? Providing large monetary or in-kind incentives is an ethical way to ensure that more participants agree to give informed consent. False
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36. Answers to Warm Up Questions, Cont.
4. True or false? In low-level epidemics, information about HIV infection in high-risk or marginalised groups should be widely publicised to prevent further spread of the disease.
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37. Answers to Warm Up Questions, Cont.
4. True or false? In low-level epidemics, information about HIV infection in high-risk or marginalised groups should be widely publicised to prevent further spread of the disease. False
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38. Answers to Warm Up Questions, Cont.
5. The process by which potential threats to confidentiality are discussed with subjects before they decide to participate is known as _________________.
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39. Answers to Warm Up Questions, Cont.
5. The process by which potential threats to confidentiality are discussed with subjects before they decide to participate is known as informed consent.
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40. Answers to Warm Up Questions, Cont.
6. List three potential risks to participants in a behavioural surveillance study.
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41. Answers to Warm Up Questions, Cont.
6. List three potential risks to participants in a behavioural surveillance study. Disclosure leading to stigmatisation, loss of employment, prosecution, etc.
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42. Answers to Warm Up Questions, Cont.
7. True or false? Surveillance is an academic exercise. Investigators should not become involved as advocates in the communities in which they work.
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43. Answers to Warm Up Questions, Cont.
7. True or false? Surveillance is an academic exercise. Investigators should not become involved as advocates in the communities in which they work. False
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44. Answers to Warm Up Questions, Cont.
8. List two types of programs or services that can be developed as a result of surveillance activities.
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45. Answers to Warm Up Questions, Cont.
8. List two types of programs or services that can be developed as a result of surveillance activities. STI clinics, voluntary testing and counselling centers, HIV prevention programs, public awareness campaigns, etc.
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46. Answers to Warm Up Questions, Cont.
9. If _______ about HIV infection is violated, subjects may suffer discrimination and stigmatisation. They may even be subject to criminal charges.
a. privacy
b. informed consent
c. confidentiality
d. beneficence
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47. Answers to Warm Up Questions, Cont.
9. If _______ about HIV infection is violated, subjects may suffer discrimination and stigmatisation. They may even be subject to criminal charges.
a. privacy
b. informed consent
c. confidentiality
d. beneficence
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48. Answers to Warm Up Questions, Cont.
10. True or false? In unlinked anonymous testing, informed consent is not obtained. Some information identifying the sample with the patient remains.
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49. Answers to Warm Up Questions, Cont.
10. True or false? In unlinked anonymous testing, informed consent is not obtained. Some information identifying the sample with the patient remains. False
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50. Small Group Discussion: Instructions
Get into small groups to discuss these questions.
Choose a speaker for your group who will report back to the class.
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51. Small Group Reports
Select one member from your group to present your answers.
Discuss with the rest of the class.
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52. Case Study: Instructions
Try this case study individually.
We’ll discuss the answers in class.
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53. Case Study Review Follow along as we go over the case study in class.
Discuss your answers with the rest of the class.
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54. Questions, Process Check
Do you have any questions on the information we just covered?
Are you happy with how we worked on Unit 7?
Do you want to try something different that will help the group?
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