1. Introduction to computer: executes instructions

2. Overview Topics discussed in this webnote: –Structure and operation of the CPU –Program flow –Types of instructions that a computer can execute

3. Overview Topics discussed in this webnote: –Structure and operation of the CPU –Program flow –Types of instructions that a computer can execute

4. Structure of a CPU

5. Components of a CPU General purpose registers: Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): – Register is a synonym for memory in computer science – A general purpose register is a memory cell – Each general purpose register has a unique name – It is used to store (and recall) intermediate result of complex computations – Is a complex electrical circuit that can perform Mathematical (+, -, ×, /) and logical operations (, ≥, and, or) – The output (result) of the computation (obtained by the ALU) is often stored in a general purpose register

6. Structure of a CPU (cont.) Instruction register (IR): Program counter (PC): Contains the current instruction being executed by the CPU The CPU will perform the operation indicated by the instruction code contained in the instruction register The program counter is a register (memory cell) ! This register contains the address (location in memory) of the next instruction after the CPU finishes executing the current instruction in the instruction register The value in the program counter will be increased after the CPU finishes executing one instruction

7. Structure of a CPU (cont.) Processor status register (PSR): This register contains the various information about the CPU Among the information contained in the PSR is: When the CPU compares 2 numbers a and b, the outcome of the comparison is stored in the PSR The outcome of a compare operation will allow the CPU to determine the following fact between a and b: The result of a comparison operation equal not equal less than less than or equal greater than greater than or equal

8. Operation of a CPU The CPU performs the following sequence of operations repeatedly: 1.After executing an instruction, the CPU obtains ("fetches") the (next) instruction at the address (location) given in the program counter 2.The fetched instruction is stored in the instruction register in the CPU and the program counter is increased to point to the next instruction in the memory 3.The fetched instruction (stored in the instruction register) is the executed (the CPU will do the operation indicated by the instruction code in the instruction register)

9. Operation of a CPU (cont.) Example: Supposed the CPU has just finished executing the instruction (instruction code 0) in the instruction register: (Instruction code 0 in the instruction register means "add" and it has just been executed)

10. Operation of a CPU (cont.) The following figures illustrates the CPU's execution cycle (that goes on indefinitely): The CPU will cause the memory to retrieve (recall) the value stored at memory address (location) 1 1. The CPU first sends a request to retrieve (recall) the data stored at memory location given by the program counter (PC) (in the figure, the value of the PC = 1):

11. Operation of a CPU (cont.) In response, the RAM memory sends the value stored in memory location 1 (= the number 4) to the CPU which stores it in the instruction register (IR): 2. In response, the RAM memory sends the value stored in memory location 1 (= the number 4) to the CPU which stores it in the instruction register (IR): This number (4) will be interpreted as a code for a computer instruction. The old instruction code (0) will be over-written by the new instruction code

12. 3. The program counter is then increased: Notice that the CPU is now ready to fetch the next instruction when the current instruction (stored in the instruction register) is processed. Operation of a CPU (cont.)

13. 4. The CPU will now execute the instruction in the program counter (instruction code = 4) When the CPU is finished, it will repeat these steps again (and again, until you turn the computer off)...

14. Pointers: pointing to a location in memory Pointer: A pointer is "something" that points to somewhere Examples: 3 pointers to different directions

15. In Computer Science, a pointer always points to a location in memory Examples: Pointers: pointing to a location in memory (cont.) Pointer to memory location 1Pointer to memory location 4

16. Pointers: pointing to a location in memory (cont.) The computer does not have "pointing finger" that point to some location in memory The pointer is represented in the computer by the value of the address (location) of the memory where the pointer is pointing at

17. Pointers: pointing to a location in memory (cont.) Examples: Pointer to memory location 1Pointer to memory location 4 Storing the value 1 in some register/memory cell will remember the memory location 1 The value 1 in the register/memory cell is effectively pointing to the memory location 1 Storing the value 4 in some register/memory cell will remember the memory location 4 The value 4 in the register/memory cell is effectively pointing to the memory location 4

18. Example of a pointer: the program counter (PC) The program counter (PC) is in fact a pointer Example When the program counter (PC) contains the value 1: the program counter (PC) is in fact pointing to the memory location 1:

19. Overview Logical (functional) view of a computer Program flow Types of instructions that a computer can execute

20. Program flow Definition: program flow Default program flow: Program flow = the sequence of instructions from the program executed by the CPU After executing a non-branching (or non-jumping) instruction at memory location n, then next instruction that is executed is the instruction at memory location n+1

21. Program flow (cont.) Example: All of the instructions in the figure are non-branching Therefore, the sequence of instructions executed by the CPU starting at memory location 0 is: 1. 0 ("add") 2. 4 ("compare") 3. 1 ("subtract") 4. And so on (in sequence)

22. Branching: changing the program flow Branch instruction: A branch instruction can alter (change) the default program flow When the CPU executes a branch x instruction, the next instruction that will be executed by the CPU is the instruction at memory location x

23. Branching: changing the program flow (cont.) Example: Notice there is a branch to location 4 instruction in the example. Therefore, the sequence of instructions executed by the CPU starting at memory location 0 is: 1. 0 ("add") 2. 64 ("branch to location 4") 3. 56 ("negate" --- this is the instruction at memory location 4) 4. 0 ("add") 5. And so on (in sequence again)

24. Overview Logical (functional) view of a computer Program flow Types of instructions that a computer can execute

25. The types of instructions that a computer can execute The computer is a computing (reckoning) machine All existing computers (actually the CPU) execute the following 3 types of instructions: Arithmetic and logic operations The result of an arithmetic and logic operation is often stored in a general purpose register + − × / AND OR NOT

26. The types of instructions that a computer can execute (cont.) Memory transfer operations Transfer the content from some specific memory location to a specific register (memory cell) in the CPU. and vice versa (transfer the content from some specific register (memory cell) in the CPU to some specific memory location).

27. The types of instructions that a computer can execute (cont.) Branch operations A branch instruction will cause the CPU to branch (jump) to the specified location in memory After the jump has occurred, the CPU will continue to execute the instructions in sequence, until another branch/jump instruction is encountered There are 2 kinds of branch operations: 1.A unconditional branch instruction will always cause the CPU to jump to the target location 2.A conditional branch instruction will only cause the CPU to jump to the target location when the specified condition is met