1. 16-1

2. Housekeeping Items Reminder that LCAs are due on Friday.
Will pass around a description of common hazardous substances in cosmetics and shampoos.
“Mapping What’s Important to Communities” – talk and workshop today at 12:30 in Building 355, Room 211.
Environmental programming on the Weather Channel tomorrow tonight at 7.
World Water Day  - Nanaimo Premiere of “Troubled Water” - Two free Screenings, Friday March 22nd at VIU: Building 200, Room 203 at 1:30 and 7:00 p.m.
Earth Hour Saturday at 8:30 p.m. – turn off your lights and appliances for one hour. If amongst first 100 pledgers, can win two compact fluorescent bulbs.

3. Upon successfully completing this chapter, you will be able to
Identify the principal energy sources that we use
Describe the nature and origin of coal and evaluate its extraction and use
Describe the nature and origin of natural gas and evaluate its extraction and use
Describe the nature and origin of oil and evaluate its extraction, use, and future availability
Describe the nature, origin, and potential of alternative fossil fuel types and technologies
Outline and assess environmental impacts of fossil fuel use
Evaluate political, social, and economic impacts of fossil fuel use
Specify strategies for conserving energy and enhancing efficiency

4. Proposal to develop three major natural gas fields
Central Case: On, Off, On Again? The MacKenzie Valley Natural Gas Pipeline
“We’ve embarked on the beginning of the last days of the age of oil.”
– Mike Bowlin, Chair, ARCO
Proposal to develop three major natural gas fields
Delayed 10 years because of deep opposition
Many who opposed the pipeline became supporters
Potential effects: fragmentation of habitat, damage breeding areas, deforestation, increase GHG emissions
Natural gas from the region may go straight into the production of oil from Alberta’s tar sands

5. Sources of Energy
16-5

6. We use a variety of energy sources
Renewable energy = supplies of energy will not be depleted by our use
Sunlight, geothermal energy, and tidal energy
Nonrenewable energy = at our current rates of consumption we will use up Earth’s accessible store of these sources in a matter of decades to centuries
Oil, coal, natural gas, nuclear energy
To replenish the fossil fuels we have depleted so far would take millions of years

7. We use a variety of energy sources (cont’d)
Fossil fuels = highly combustible substances formed from remains of organisms from past geologic ages
Electricity = a secondary form of energy that is easier to transfer and apply to a variety of uses

8. We use a variety of energy sources (cont’d)
Nonrenewable
Crude oil
Natural gas
Coal
Nuclear energy
Renewable
Biomass energy
Hydropower
Solar energy
Wind Energy
Geothermal energy
Tidal and wave energy
Chemical fuels

9. Fossil fuels are indeed created from fossils
Fossil fuels we burn today were formed from the tissues of organisms that lived million years ago
Fossil fuels are produced only when organic materials is broken down in an anaerobic environment = one that has little or no oxygen
Bottoms of deep lakes, swamps, and shallow seas
Organic matter is eventually converted into crude oil, natural gas, or coal
It is said that we are using a million years’ worth of geological production every day!

10. Fossil fuel reserves are unevenly distributed
Some regions have substantial reserves, whereas others have very few
How long a nation’s reserves will last depends on:
How much the nation extracts, consumes
How much it imports from and exports to other nations
Nearly 67% of the world’s proven reserves of crude oil lie in the Middle East
The U.S. possesses more coal than any other nation

11. Developed nations consume more energy than developing nations
Industrialized nations
Use energy for transportation, industry, other
Developing nations
Use energy for subsistence activities
Agriculture, food preparation, and home heating
Manual or animal energy instead of fossil fuels

12. Regions vary greatly in energy consumption

13. It takes energy to make energy
Net energy = the difference between energy returned and energy invested
Net energy = energy returned – energy invested
Energy returned on investment (EROI) = energy returned/energy invested
Higher ratios mean we receive more energy than we invest
Ratios decline when we extract the easiest deposits first and now must work harder to extract the remaining reserves

14. Coal, Natural Gas, and Oil
16-14

15. Coal is the world’s most abundant fossil fuel
Coal = organic matter (woody plant material) that was compressed under very high pressure to form dense, solid carbon structures

16. Coal use has a long history
The Romans used coal for heating in the second and third centuries in Britain
The Chinese have used coal for 2, ,000 years
Commercial mining began in the 1700s
The invention of the steam engine expanded coal’s market
Coal helped drive the Industrial Revolution and the steel industry
In the 1880s, people used coal to generate electricity

17. Coal is mined from the surface and from below ground
Source: ohvec.org
Subsurface mining = underground deposits are reached by digging networks of tunnels deep underground
Strip mining = heavy machinery removes huge amounts of earth to expose and extract the coal
Mountaintop removal = in some cases, entire mountaintops are cut off to obtain the coal

18. Coal varies in its qualities
Coal varies from place to place
Peat = organic material that is broken down anaerobically but remains wet, near the surface and not well compressed
Widely used as a fuel in Britain
Four types of coal
Lignite = least compressed
Sub-bituminous and bituminous
Anthracite = most compressed; has the most energy

19. Coal varies in its qualities (cont’d)
Coal contains impurities
Sulfur, mercury, arsenic, and other trace metals (including uranium and other radioactive substances)
Sulfur content depends on whether coal was formed in salt water or freshwater
Coal in the eastern Canada is high in sulfur because it was formed in marine sediments
When high-sulfur coal is burned, it released sulfate air pollutants, which contribute to smog and acidic deposition
Mercury can bioaccumulate
Ways to reduce pollution must be found

20. Natural gas is the fastest-growing fossil fuel in use today
Natural gas consists primarily of methane, CH4, and varying amounts of other volatile hydrocarbons
Can be liquid at ambient pressures and temperatures in subsurface reservoirs
Provides 25% of global commercial energy consumption
World supplies are projected to last about 60 more years

21. Natural gas is formed in two ways
Biogenic gas = created at shallow depths by bacterial anaerobic decomposition of organic matter
“swamp gas”
Thermogenic gas = results from compression and heat deep underground
Kerogen = organic matter that results when carbon bonds begin breaking
Source material for natural gas and crude oil
Coalbed methane = methane from coal seams, leaks to the atmosphere during mining

22. Natural gas has only recently been widely used
The first commercial extraction occurred in 1821 but was only used locally, because it could not be transferred safely
First used to light street lamps, then for heating and cooking
After thousands of miles of pipes were laid, natural gas transport became safer and more economical
Liquefied natural gas (LNG) = liquid gas that can be shipped long distances in refrigerated tankers
Canada is the world’s third-largest producer of natural gas

23. Natural gas extraction becomes more challenging with time
The first gas fields simply required an opening and the gas moved upward
Most remaining fields require pumping by horsehead pumps
Gas is accessed by sophisticated techniques such as fracturing technique, which pumps high-pressure salt water into rocks to crack them
Fracking – extensive environmental impacts – see

24. Offshore drilling produces much of our gas and oil
Drilling takes place on land and in the seafloor on the continental shelves
Platforms are either strong fixed platforms or floating platforms

25. Oil is the world’s most-used fuel
People have used solid forms of oil (i.e., tar) for thousands of years
Modern extraction and use began in the 1850s
First bottled and sold as a healing aid, but it is carcinogenic
This “rock oil” could be used lamps and as a lubricant
Edwin Drake drilled the world’s first oil well, in Titusville, Pennsylvania, in 1859
Canadians – less than 0.005% of the world’s population – consume 2.5% of the oil

26. Heat and pressure underground form petroleum
Oil, crude oil, or petroleum (oil and natural gas)
Crude oil = a mixture of hundreds of different types of hydrocarbon molecules
Formed km (1 - 2 mi) underground
Dead organic material was buried in marine sediments and transformed by time, heat, and pressure
Refineries separate crude oil into components such as gas, tar, and asphalt

27. Petroleum geologists infer the location and size of deposits
Geologists map underground rock formations
Technically recoverable oil reveals the oil that could be extracted with current technology
Economically recoverable oil recognizes the balance between the costs of extraction, transportation and current price of oil
Proven recoverable reserve = oil that is technologically and economically feasible to remove under current conditions

28. We drill to extract oil
Exploratory drilling = small, deep holes to determine whether extraction should be done
Oil is under pressure and often rises to the surface
Primary extraction = the initial drilling and pumping of available oil
Secondary extraction = solvents, water, or stream is used to remove additional oil; expensive
We lack the technology to remove every bit of oil
As prices rise, it becomes economical to reopen a well

29. Primary and secondary oil extraction

30. Petroleum products have many uses

31. We may have already depleted half our oil reserves
Some people calculate that we have used up about 1.1 trillion barrels of oil
Reserves-to-production ratio (R/P ratio) = the amount of total remaining reserves divided by the annual rate of production (extraction and processing)
At current levels of production (30 billion barrels/year), we have about 40 years of oil left
We will face a crisis not when we run out of oil, but when the rate of production begins to decline (“peak oil”)

32. Hubbard’s peak = Geologist M. King Hubbard predicted that U. S
Hubbard’s peak = Geologist M. King Hubbard predicted that U.S. oil production would peak around 1970

33. Geologist Kenneth Deffeyes contends that we already passed peak global production in 2005

34. The end of oil weighing the issues
How do you think your life would be affected if our society were to suffer a 50% decrease in oil availability over the next 10 years, as some observers have predicted?
What steps would you take to adapt to these changes?
What steps should our society take to deal with the coming depletion of oil?
Do you think the recent surges in the price of oil and gasoline are an indication that such changes are beginning?

35. “Unconvential” Fossil Fuels
16-35

36. Canada owns massive deposits of oil sands
Oil sands (tar sands) = sand deposits with % bitumen, a thick form of petroleum rich in carbon, poor in hydrogen
Degraded and chemically altered crude oil deposits
Removed by strip mining
Requires special extraction and refining processes to become useful

37. Oil shale is abundant in the American West
Oil shale = sedimentary rock filled with kerogen (organic matter) that can be processed to produce liquid petroleum
Can be burned like coal or baked in hydrogen (called prylosis) to produce liquid petroleum
More than 40% is found in the U.S., mostly on federally owned land in the west
Low prices for crude oil have kept investors away
As oil prices increase, oil shale is attracting attention

38. Methane hydrate is another form of natural gas
Methane hydrate (methane ice) = molecules of methane in a crystal lattice of water ice molecules
Occurs in arctic locations and under the seafloor
Formed by bacterial decomposition in anaerobic environments
Immense amounts could be present, from twice to 20 times the amount of natural gas
Extraction could destablize marine ecosystems
Landslides and tsunamis release of large amounts of methane (a greenhouse gas)

39. Alternative fossil fuels have significant environmental impacts
Low Energy Returned on Energy Invested (EROI) ratios: about 3:1 compared to the 5:1 ratio on crude oil
These fuels exert severe environmental impacts
Devastates landscapes
Pollutes waterways
Combustion pollutes the atmosphere just as much as crude oil, coal, and gas

40. Environmental Impact of Fossil Fuel Use
16-40

41. Fossil fuel emissions cause pollution and drive climate change
Alter flux rates in Earth’s carbon cycle
Release more carbon dioxide then they burn
Pollutants and hydrocarbons cause severe health problems
Mercury from coal-fired power plants
Contaminates water supplies and freshwater ecosystems
Run-off into water supplies, enter groundwater supplies
FIGURE 15.15

42. Some emissions from fossil fuel burning can be “captured”
Carbon capture and storage (CCS)
Sequestration = storage of materials in geologic reservoirs on a long timescale
Many environmentalists are skeptical about CCS
Technology unproven
True impacts are not known
Increase acidification of ocean water
FIGURE 15.15

43. Coal mining affects the environment
Strip mining causes severe soil erosion and chemical runoff
Acid drainage = sulfide minerals on exposed rock surfaces react with oxygen and rainwater to produce sulfuric acid
Mountaintop removal causes enormous damage
Material slides downhill, destroying immense areas of habitat

44. Coal mining affects the environment (cont’d)
Subsurface mining is harmful to human health
Inhalation of coal dust can lead to fatal black lung disease
Mining companies must restore landscapes, but the impacts are still severe
Costs to repair damages of mining are very high
These costs are not included in the market prices of fossil fuels, which are kept inexpensive by government subsidies

45. Oil and gas extraction can alter the environment
Road networks
Extensive infrastructure
Housing for workers
Access roads
Transport pipelines
Waste piles for removed soil
Ponds constructed for collecting toxic sludge that remains after oil removed

46. Political, Social, and Economic Aspects
16-46

47. Oil supply and prices affect the economies of nations
Our economies are utterly tied to fossil fuels
We are vulnerable to supplies’ becoming suddenly unavailable or extremely costly
Gives seller nations control
In Canada, imports outweigh exports
16-47

48. Oil supply and prices affect the economies of nations (cont’d)
OPEC (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) resolved to stop selling oil to United States in 1973 as a consequence of U.S. support of Israel
Created panic and oil prices skyrocketed
Spurred inflation
16-48

49. Oil supply and prices affect the economies of nations (cont’d)
Hurricanes Katrina and Rita destroyed offshore drilling systems and spiked oil prices
Because the politically volatile Middle East has the majority of oil reserves, crises are a constant concern for the U.S.
Despite political disagreements, the U.S. has a close relationship with Saudi Arabia because Saudi Arabia owns 22% of the world’s oil reserves

51. Residents may or may not benefit from their fossil fuel reserves
Extraction of fossil fuels can be extremely lucrative
Jobs to millions of employees
Supply dividends to millions of investors
Government assistance to residents of the area
Local residents have frequently suffered
Money often has not trickled down
Few environmental regulations leads to environmental degradation

52. We need to conserve energy and find renewable sources
Energy conservation = the practice of reducing energy use to:
Extend the life of our nonrenewable energy supplies
Be less wasteful
Reduce environmental impact
2008: 83% of Canadians planned to buy a more fuel-efficient car next time around, 51% had been cutting down on driving
Impacted on SUV and light truck industry

53. More Kilometres, Less Gas
weighing the issues
More Kilometres, Less Gas
If you drive an automobile, how many kilometres does it travel per 100 L of gasoline?
If you drove 2400km (the distance from Montreal to Winnipeg) in a car with a fuel efficiency of 8.33 L/100 km, instead of making the trip in an SUV with a fuel efficiency of 12.5 L/100 km, how much money would you save on the trip?
How much would you save on the amount you typically drive in a year?
Do you think that the government should raise taxes on gasoline sales as an incentive to consumers to conserve energy?

54. Personal choice and increased efficiency are two routes to conservation
Individuals can reduce energy consumption
Society can make energy-consuming devices more efficient
Increase fuel efficiency
Improve the efficiency of power plants
Cogeneration = excess heat produced during electrical generation is used to heat buildings and produce other types of power (e.g. incinerator in New West is used to help power Scott Paper plant)

55. Personal choice and increased efficiency are two routes to conservation (cont’d)
Improvements in home design can reduce energy required to heat and cool them
Scores of appliances have been reengineered to increase energy efficiency
Consumers need to vote with their wallets by buying energy-efficient products

56. Conclusion
Conserving energy is better than finding a new reserve as it lessens impacts on the environment while extending access to fossil fuels
The only sustainable way of guaranteeing a reliable long-term supply of energy is to ensure sufficiently rapid development of renewable energy sources
Fossil fuels have helped us build our complex industrialized societies but now fossil fuel production will begin to decline
We can encourage conservation and develop alternative energy sources or wait until fossil fuels are depleted
Renewable energy sources are becoming feasible and economical
Easier to envision giving up on our reliance on fossil fuels
Win-win future for humanity and the environment
For more on peak oil, see digital.films.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?aid=8601&xtid=39705.