1. Learning Disabilities
Chapter 4 Objectives
At the end of this presentation you should be able to:
Define and identify the characteristics of a learning disability.
Identify the causes associated with learning disabilities.
Describe how you evaluate students with learning disabilities.
Understand how you assure progress in the general curriculum.
Identify and describe successful practice for teaching students with learning disabilities.
These are the instructional goals presented in the Student Study Guide and the Instructor’s Manual - don’t forget that you can introduce the chapter by accessing the audio clips of the authors on the companion website. These audio clips provide an overview and focus the student to understand the importance of the information they are preparing to learn.
Chapter Objectives

2. Who Is Tony Lavender? Learning Disabilities Chapter 4
Tony is an outgoing sixth-grade student.
However, he also tends to be shy and has been a struggling student.
He began receiving special education services 7 years ago.
He has a vision problem that contributed to his learning problems.
Collaborative efforts from Tony’s dad, stepmother, and teacher have helped Tony gain ability and confidence.
Despite achieving some level of success, Tony is still afraid of failure.
To encourage students to discuss Tony, use the “What Do You Think?” questions on p. 103.
In Tony’s story, all the stakeholders are collaborating to get Tony better adjusted to less time in the special education classroom. What can teachers and parents do to make a child feel more comfortable in a similar situation?
Tony has a fear of failure - why do you think that is?

3. How Do You Recognize Students with Learning Disabilities?
Defining Learning Disabilities
How Do You Recognize Students with Learning Disabilities?
IDEA definition
Specific learning disability
Basic psychological processes
National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities
Learning disabilities are heterogeneous
IDEA requires significant academic difficulty
Learning disabilities are a lifelong condition
NJCLD assumes learning disabilities have intrinsic causes, along with possible extrinsic causes for academic problems
As you discuss the differences between the IDEA and NJCLD definitions,
emphasize that NJCLD identifies four specific characteristics critical to the
education of children with learning disabilities. They are:
The condition is heterogeneous. Literally 20 students with LD may have 20 different manifestations of the disability. This makes for a diverse population and may also offer a challenge to the field as we attempt to identify, educate, and evaluate these individuals.
Social and behavioral challenges amongst students with learning disabilities continue to be on the rise. Whether they are due to years of frustration and anxiety in the classroom or a component of the disability, we continue to be uncertain. Regardless, social and behavioral characteristics add to the classroom needs for these children.
Learning disabilities is not a social construct simply limited to the school experience. Instead, this is a life long condition lasting across the life span.
The cause of learning disabilities is intrinsic to the individual. Poor teaching and limited experiences may exasperate the disability but are not a cause of the disability. Adding this to the NJCLD definition helps separate a true learning disability from a child who is low achieving due to environmental circumstances.
An excellent resource to consider introducing students to would be the LD Summit ( Held during the summer of 1999 in Washington, Dc, the purpose of the summit was to gain a better understanding of what we know about LD and what the future holds.
Describe characteristics of a learning disability.

4. How Do You Recognize Students with Learning Disabilities?
Classification Criteria for Learning Disabilities
Three criteria for classification
Inclusionary
Exclusionary
Need criterion
Intelligence tests
Bell curve shows below-average, average, and above-average ranges of intelligence
The use of IQ tests is sometimes criticized
The inclusionary criterion is one that merits further review with your students. A severe discrepancy and the related discrepancy formula has been at the center of identification of students with LD since the 1970’s. For some, having a specific IQ to determine a disability is helpful. However, it is important to emphasize that the formula is not always accurate. Instead, researchers have pointed out that there are multiple problems inherent in the ability-achievement discrepancy concept.
IQ test fraught with problems
Intelligence of a child with LD often underestimated by IQ tests
Difficulty using discrepancy formula to separate disabilities and simply slow learners
Wait to fail dilemma in that IQ test only helpful in the later elementary grades in demonstrating difference. In the meantime, students struggle in the early grade.
For a thorough review of the literature on this subject, consider the “Discrepancy Models” paper published as part of the LD Summit ( Here, the authors present a thorough overview of the issue, the evolvement of the discrepancy model, and the current challenges in its use.
Describe characteristics of a learning disability.

5. How Do You Recognize Students with Learning Disabilities?
Describing the Characteristics
Academic Characteristics
Reading
Written Language
Mathematics
Memory
Metacognition
Behavioral Characteristics
Interpersonal Skills
Motivation
Self-Concept
As you describe the characteristics associated with learning disabilities, use Tony as an example. Tony is a good example of LD being a heterogeneous condition. That is, while he has limitations in reading and writing, his public-speaking skills indicates a good memory and someone with good if not exceptional interpersonal skills.
Why can this diversity in characteristics and variety in strengths and weaknesses be frustrating for teachers?
Describe characteristics of a learning disability.

6. How Do You Recognize Students with Learning Disabilities?
Identifying the Causes
Neurological Causes
Advances in technology
MRIs
CAT Scans
PET Scans
Hereditary/Genetic Causes – Human Genome Project
Teratogenic/Pollutant Factors
In your discussion of neurological causes, consider and illustrate the advancements in science and technology that have allowed us to document differences in brain development.
Hereditary/Genetic - Explain that recent work by the National Human Genome Research Project ( has made a number of advances in human health through genetic research.
Teratogens - Consider discussing how lead paint, once widely used, was found to be a pollutant and through environmental protection was banned from homes and related buildings. Next, review current toxins that may be harmful to brain development and possibly lead to learning disabilities. For example, weed killers, insecticides, and lawn fertilizers have been linked as possible toxins. Similarly, mercury, especially in some earlier vaccinations, have been attributed to central nervous system dysfunctions. Emphasize that we continue to learn more about harmful pollutants and should look to preventive measures when possible.
Identify the causes associated with learning disabilities.

7. How Do You Evaluate Students With Learning Disabilities?
Evaluating Students
Figure 4-3
Point out how the steps of observation, screening, prereferral, referral, and nondiscriminatory evaluation take place in the evaluation of students who have learning disabilities.
A detailed diagram of decision-making steps for identifying learning disabilities is on p. 115, Figure 4-5. Direct students to look at this diagram. Does it illustrate the heterogeneous nature of learning disabilities? How?
Describe how you evaluate students with learning disabilities.

8. How Do You Evaluate Students With Learning Disabilities?
Determining the Presence
Nondiscriminatory evaluation procedures
Adhere to IDEA inclusionary and exclusionary criteria
Establish a discrepancy between intellect and achievement
Test to measure students’ cognitive abilities
WISC-III
Test to measure students’ achievement
WIAT-II
To illustrate how one uses the WIAT-II, access a copy from a local school or from your college/university testing center. Demonstrate to the class the format to be followed in order to successfully achieve accurate results. Illustrate what scores would meet the inclusionary criteria. Explain that teachers may administer the WIAT as part of the nondiscriminatory evaluation, but only person who meet the proper licensing guidelines in your state may administer the WISC.
Refer to Figure 4-4 for an additional illustration. Discuss whether Jose meets your state guidelines under learning disabilities. Offer examples of what additional information would likely be provided to determine whether a child (like Jose or Tony) has a learning disability.
Describe how you evaluate students with learning disabilities.

9. How Do You Evaluate Students With Learning Disabilities?
Determining the Nature and Extent of Services
Criterion-referenced tests
Help determine whether a child has a learning disability
Findings are useful in developing an IEP
Can determine instructional effectiveness
Curriculum-based assessment
Chart a student’s progress
Should reflect objectives you are teaching
Test items should be clearly stated
Special Connections – An example
Explain to class participants that nondiscriminatory evaluations often do not assist in the development of a child’s individualized education plan (IEP). While it will help in making a determination of a learning disability, it is not particularly useful in determining instructional effectiveness and monitoring day-to-day and ongoing student progress. Instead, educators, particularly special educators, are using curriculum-based assessments to monitor student progress and determine what instructional applications are necessary. Curriculum-based assessments can be a critical factor in identifying significant difficulties as well as related strengths specific to a child’s learning. To offer an illustration of curriculum-based assessment, a thorough overview, and tools that teachers can use to conduct this process, visit the Special Connections website ( Special Connections is a project affiliated with the Department of Special Education at the University of Kansas. The goal of the project is to connect teachers to strategies that help students with special needs successfully access the general education curriculum. To access the lesson on curriculum-based assessment, click on the Assessment puzzle piece located on the front page of the site.
Recognize the importance of student progress within the general curriculum.

10. Ability-Achievement Discrepancy
Requires that students show a severe discrepancy between their IQ and academic achievement through the use of standardized testing.
This has resulted in intense interest in and urgency for finding alternative methods which could be both more timely and more reliable.
Discrepancy dilemma
Increase in numbers
“Waiting to fail”
Cultural bias

11. Responsiveness to Intervention (RTI)
RTI is an individualized, comprehensive assessment and intervention process, utilizing a problem-solving framework to identify and address student academic difficulties using effective, efficient, research-based instruction.
RTI process
students who show signs of learning difficulties are provided with a series of increasingly intensive, individualized interventions
interventions are designed and delivered by general education staff in collaboration with other experts such as special educators and school psychologists and are based on reliable research
intervention process includes systematic monitoring of the student’s progress
students who do not show improvement, or “responsiveness,” to this series of interventions are considered to be learning disabled and in need of special education services in order to receive educational benefit from instruction.

12. How Do You Assure Progress in the General Curriculum?
Including Students
Figure 4-6
Discuss the continuum of services that schools must provide including: resource rooms, special classes, special schools, homebound services, and hospitals or institutions. Emphasize here that the general education classroom will be the primary educational placement for the majority of students with learning disabilities. Thus, it is critical that teachers employ the principles of UDL to meet the academic, social, and behavioral needs of these students as well as their peers.
Question for discussion on the continuum of services: Why would schools need to provide resource rooms if they are including students in the regular education environment?
Recognize the importance of student progress within the general curriculum.

13. How Do You Assure Progress in the General Curriculum?
Planning Universally Designed Learning
Figure 4-7
Augmenting instruction
Learning strategies
Acquiring information
Storing and remembering
Augmenting curriculum
Direct instruction
The examples of Learning Strategies and Direct Instruction offer concrete ways teachers can alter and augment what they do to meet the instructional needs of students with learning disabilities. Direct students to Box 4-2 on p. 117 for tips on including students both academically and socially.
How should schools plan for and facilitate the nonacademic inclusion of students with special needs?
Discuss and understand the basic components of the universally designed curriculum.

14. How Do You Assure Progress in the General Curriculum?
Collaborating to Meet Students’ Needs
Teachers need to be able to plan together
Share information about students’ difficulties
Examine causes of behavior
Brainstorm solutions and interventions
Select and implement interventions
Plan for evaluation and future implementation
The Power of 2
Take the time here to map out what effective collaboration entails for it to be successful. If time allows, assign class participants to complete the Power of 2 ( activity listed for Chapter 4 on the Students website ( For chapter 4, we focus on the Power of 2’s online training module titled” Program Development.” Here, students can learn about the essentials of program planning, responsibilities, personnel roles, and making time for effective collaboration. Assign groups to examine specific “Program Development” lessons reporting back to the entire class what they learned and how it would apply to the general education setting. Consider using Tony’s needs as an example and how “Program Development” would be critical for his success in the Junior High setting.
Understand the benefits of collaboration and communication across settings.

15. The Early Childhood Years
What Can You Learn From Others Who Teach Students With Learning Disabilities?
Early Childhood
What Can You Learn From Others Who Teach Students With Learning Disabilities?
The Early Childhood Years
Embedded Learning Opportunities (ELO) – 5 Key Steps
Target and enhance child’s classroom engagement
Set up the environment for engagement
Observe child independently engaged
Approach a child not engaged
Engage, elaborate, and provide reinforcement
As we discuss in Chapter 4, the ELO applies many of the principles of UDL to the preschool classroom. For your discussion, you might want to consider learning more about the ELO program centered at Vanderbilt University. The website for the program can be found at: Here, the National Individualizing Preschool Inclusion Project is discussed in detail. The ELO Model is illustrated and a number resources including routine-based assessments and an intervention matrix are available to share with students bringing the ELO to life. Review this material and consider targeted resources to show during your presentation or assign for future student investigation.
Connect knowledge to specific case studies.

16. Direct Instruction (DI)
What Can You Learn From Others Who Teach Students With Learning Disabilities?
Elementary
The Elementary Years
Direct Instruction (DI)
Instructional techniques based on choral responses, homogeneous grouping, signals, and other proven instructional techniques.
Carefully designed sequences, lesson scripting, as well as responses to anticipated children’s questions.
As Susan Brumbley offers in Chapter 4, Direct Instruction has been critical to Tony’s reading success. As you explore DI with your students, consider visiting the Association for Direct Instruction ( This website offers some brief but excellent video clips of: (1) students explaining why reading is hard, (2) teachers using DI in the classroom, and (3) an overview of the Reading Mastery program (similar to what Susan used with Tony). You might also consider completing your own web search for direct instruction materials. I believe you’ll be pleasantly surprised at the number of lesson plans, research articles, and model introductions available to you and your students via the web and thus, fostering a better understanding of DI.
For a wonderful 15 minute overview of DI, illustrations of it being used in the classroom, and a brief interview with its developer Siegfried Engelmann, contact ABC’s 20/20 and request a copy of the segment that appeared in October, Yes, it was a few years ago but the overview offers a great introduction to the intervention and the challenges teachers have faced in using this effective tool with their students.
Connect knowledge to specific case studies.

17. Middle and Secondary Years
What Can You Learn From Others Who Teach Students With Learning Disabilities?
Middle and Secondary
Middle and Secondary Years
Learning Strategies
Teacher directed from beginning to end
Student learns through repetition and practice
Empower learner to generalize across settings
Strategy Examples
Center for Research on Learning
The Learning ToolBox
For your discussion of the middle, secondary and post secondary years, you may want to consider the Learning Tool Box (coe.jmu.edu/learningtoolbox) for a further discussion and illustration of strategies. For this part of the presentation, visit the “Teacher” section of the Toolbox and consider the lesson on “How to Teach the Strategies” ( This section offers a thorough overview of the process as well as video illustrations of teachers and students walking through the strategy decision-making process, the tools necessary for this process, and the empowerment that comes from such intense work. For students particularly interested in Math Strategies, consider reviewing the web-based resource titled MathVids (coe.jmu.edu/mathvids). Here, you could illustrate the use of math strategies for all students via a number of video illustrations.
Connect knowledge to specific case studies.

18. Transitional and Post-Secondary Years
What Can You Learn From Others Who Teach Students With Learning Disabilities?
Transitional and Post Secondary
Transitional and Post-Secondary Years
Mitchell College’s Learning Resource Center
Colleges and universities have increased services for students with learning disabilities.
LRC staff are learning specialists
Three levels of support:
Entitled support
Enhanced support
Comprehensive support
Take the time here to revisit the case study about Tony and to engage students in discussion about planning for Tony. For his transition to college, you might revisit Mitchell College’s efforts to meet the learning needs of students with a disability ( found on page 126 of the textbook. Consider investigating what your university or college offers in way of academic and learning supports for students with disabilities. Invite the Director of this disability support center to your class to explain the supports available and the process students with disabilities pursue in order to receive reasonable accommodations in the college classroom. Similarly, consider discussing with students, colleges and universities that have developed specific curriculum as well as programs to attract individuals with learning disabilities to their campus. For example, Curry College ( is a liberal-arts institution that focuses on supporting individuals with learning disabilities in the collegiate environment. You might to mention middle and high school programs developed specifically for students with learning disabilities as well--Landmark School (
Connect knowledge to specific case studies.

19. A Vision For Tony’s Future
Planning Tony’s transition from high school to college
Supporting Tony’s success in reading to content comprehension in content areas
Ensuring success in the resource room is continued in the general education classroom
Including Tony’s parents as part of the collaborative team
Use the “What Would You Recommend?” questions on page 128 to wrap up the chapter and return to Tony. Using these questions at the end of each chapter are a good method of tying the chapter information together. You can use the story of the student introduced at the beginning of the chapter as a way to put the information into a practical application.