1. AME 60634 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 1 Non-Continuum Energy Transfer: Electrons

2. AME 60634 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 2 The Crystal Lattice The crystal lattice is the organization of atoms and/or molecules in a solid The lattice constant ‘a’ is the distance between adjacent atoms in the basic structure (~ 4 Å) The organization of the atoms is due to bonds between the atoms –Van der Waals (~0.01 eV), hydrogen (~k B T), covalent (~1-10 eV), ionic (~1-10 eV), metallic (~1-10 eV) cst-www.nrl.navy.mil/lattice NaCl Ga 4 Ni 3 simple cubicbody-centered cubic tungsten carbide hexagonal a

3. AME 60634 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 3 The Crystal Lattice Each electron in an atom has a particular potential energy –electrons inhabit quantized (discrete) energy states called orbitals –the potential energy V is related to the quantum state, charge, and distance from the nucleus As the atoms come together to form a crystal structure, these potential energies overlap  hybridize forming different, quantized energy levels  bonds This bond is not rigid but more like a spring potential energy

4. AME 60634 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 4 The Crystal Lattice – Electron View The electrons of a single isolated atom occupy atomic orbitals, which form a discrete (quantized) set of energy levels Electrons occupy quantized electronic states characterized by four quantum numbers –energy state (principal)  energy levels/orbitals –magnetic state (z-component of orbital angular momentum) –magnitude of orbital angular momentum –spin up or down (spin quantum number) Pauli exclusion principle: no 2 electrons can occupy the same exact energy level (i.e., have same set of quantum numbers) As atomic spacing decreases (hybridization) atoms begin to share electrons  band overlap

5. AME 60634 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 5 Electrons - Conductors In the atomic structure, valence electrons are in the outer most shells –loosely bonded to the nucleus  free to move! In metals, there are fewer valence electrons occupying the outer shell  more places within the shell to move When atoms of these types come together (sharing bands as discussed before)  electrons can move from atom to atom –electrons in motion makes electricity! (must supply external force – voltage, temperature, etc.) In metals the valence electrons are free to move  electrons are the energy carrier In insulators the valence shells are fully occupied and there’s nowhere to move  energy carriers are now the bond (spring) vibrations (phonons)

6. AME 60634 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 6 Electrons – Free Electron Model G. Chen free electron In metals, we treat these electrons as free, independent particles free electron model, electron gas, Fermi gas still governed by quantum mechanics and statistics free electron gas

7. AME 60634 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 7 Electrons – Energy and Momentum wave function |ψ 2 | can be thought of as electron probability (or likelihood of an electron being there)  Heisenberg uncertainty principle eigenfunction of Shrödinger’s equationsenergy momentum The energy and momentum of a free electron is determined by Schrödinger’s equation for the electron wave function Ψ We assume a form of the wave function From here we determine the electron’s energy and momentum k is again the wave vector

8. AME 60634 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 8 Electrons – Energy and Momentum Recall phonons: we sought a relationship between energy (frequency) and momentum (wave vector) ω = f(k) (dispersion relation) dispersion relation for an acoustic phonon dispersion relation for free electron - we assumed form of the solution: - we set up a governing equation: Much like phonons, from the dispersion relation we can determine the density of states, which combined with the occupation will tell us the internal energy  specific heat

9. AME 60634 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 9 Electrons – Energy and k-space We saw with phonons that only discrete values of k (wave vectors) can occur  basically, only certain wavelengths can be supported by the atomic structure real space k-space Additionally, for electrons, because of the Pauli exclusion principle, each wave vector ( k state) can only be occupied by 2 electrons (of opposite spin) Recall in the analysis of electrons, the wave function was related to the wave vector It can be shown, that the wave vector may take only certain discrete states (eigenvalues)

10. AME 60634 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 10 Electrons – Energy and k-space We saw with phonons that only discrete values of k (wave vectors) can occur  basically, only certain wavelengths can be supported by the atomic structure real space k-space We can describe the allowable momentum states in k -space which takes the form of a circle (2D) or sphere (3D)

11. AME 60634 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 11 Electrons - Density of States The density of states (DOS) of a system describes the number of states (N) at each energy level that are available to be occupied –simple view: think of an auditorium where each tier represents an energy level http://pcagreatperformances.org/info/merrill_seating_chart/ greater available seats (N states) in this energy level fewer available seats (N states) in this energy level The density of states does not describe if a state is occupied only if the state exists  occupation is determined statistically simple view: the density of states only describes the floorplan & number of seats not the number of tickets sold

12. AME 60634 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 12 Electrons – Density of States Density of States: The number of states is determined by examining k-space With some manipulation, it can be shown that the 3D density of states for electrons is With some manipulation, it can be shown that the 3D density of states for phonons is

13. AME 60634 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 13 Electrons – Fermi Levels The number of possible electron states is simply the integral of the density of states to the maximum possible energy level. –at T = 0 K this is the equivalent as determining the number of electrons per unit volume –we put an electron in each state at each energy level and keep filling up energy states until we run out However, the number of electrons in a solid can be determined by the atomic structure and lattice geometry  known quantity We call this maximum possible energy level the Fermi energy and we can similarly define the Fermi momentum, and Fermi temperature

14. AME 60634 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 14 Electrons - Occupation The occupation of energy states for T > 0 K is determined by the Fermi-Dirac distribution (electrons are fermions) Electrons near the Fermi level can be thermally excited to higher energy states electron number density ε F = 5 eV 1000 K 300 K ε F = 5 eV

15. AME 60634 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 15 Electrons – Specific Heat total electron energy specific heat If we know how many electrons (statistics), how much energy for an electron, how many at each energy level (density of states)  total energy stored by the electrons!  SPECIFIC HEAT For total specific heat, we combine the phonon and electron contributions Basic relationships

16. AME 60634 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 16 Electrons – Electrical & Thermal Transport Thus far, we have determined electron energy and energy storage by assuming a free electron model  freely moving electrons We can also use the free electron approach to predict electrical and thermal transport  limited applicability (what about the lattice!) –we attempt to correct for real structure by using an effective mass m* (greater than real mass) We can quickly assess the electrical transport by a simple application of Newton’s law

17. AME 60634 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 17 Electrons – Electrical Transport Newton’s 2 nd Law Coulombic force drag due to collisions The steady-state solution gives the average electron “drift” velocity The current density is the rate of charge transport per unit area (like heat flux) compare to Ohm’s law! Therefore, the electrical conductivity is simply what is the relaxation time/mean free path?

18. AME 60634 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 18 Electrons – Scattering Processes Electrons will scatter off phonons and impurities but not the static crystal ions For the time being, let’s assume we know these mean free paths. We can combine them using Matthiesen’s rule We now know the electrical conductivity What about the thermal conductivity?  kinetic theory still applies!

19. AME 60634 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 19 Electons – Thermal Conductivity Recall from kinetic theory we can describe the heat flux as Leading to Fourier’s Law what is the mean time between collisions?

20. AME 60634 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 20 Electrons – Thermal Conductivity Let’s assume we know the mean free path, for the time being … these appear related! Wiedemann-Franz Ratio - if we know (measure) one we can find the other - based on the fundamental assumption that the electrical and thermal mean free paths are equivalent - good at high and low T - based on the FREE ELECTRON MODEL

21. AME 60634 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 21 Electrons – Free Electron Model Limits of Free Electron Model –poorly predicts some aspects of thermal/electrical transport –poorly predicts magnitude of specific heat –poorly predicts magnetic properties –does not explain difference between metal and insulator! To properly understand electrons we must account for their interactions with the lattice –we will not go into these details, but you should appreciate the implications –this enables us to understand the different types of materials & why computers, photovoltaics, etc. work! Recall that free electron energy is parabolic! - like phonons, there is also a Brillouin zone where the dispersion relation repeats

22. AME 60634 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 22 Electrons – Effect of Lattice band gap!

23. AME 60634 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 23 Electrons – Effect of Lattice

24. AME 60634 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 24 Electrons – Band Gaps G. Chen

25. AME 60634 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 25 Electrons – Material Types G. Chen

26. AME 60634 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 26 Electrons – What We’ve Learned Electrons are particles with quantized energy states –store and transport thermal and electrical energy –primary energy carriers in metals –usually approximate their behavior using the Free Electron Model energy wavelength (wave vector) Electrons have a statistical occupation, quantized (discrete) energy, and only limited numbers at each energy level (density of states) –we can derive the specific heat! We can treat electrons as particles and therefore determine the thermal conductivity based on kinetic theory –Wiedemann Franz relates thermal conductivity to electrical conductivity In real materials, the free electron model is limited because it does not account for interactions with the lattice –energy band is not continuous –the filling of energy bands and band gaps determine whether a material is a conductor, insulator, or semi-conductor