1. AME 60614 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 1 Non-Continuum Energy Transfer: Gas Dynamics

2. AME 60614 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 2 Phonons – What We’ve Learned Phonons are quantized lattice vibrations –store and transport thermal energy –primary energy carriers in insulators and semi-conductors (computers!) Phonons are characterized by their –energy –wavelength (wave vector) –polarization (direction) –branch (optical/acoustic)  acoustic phonons are the primary thermal energy carriers Phonons have a statistical occupation (Bose-Einstein), quantized (discrete) energy, and only limited numbers at each energy level –we can derive the specific heat! We can treat phonons as particles and therefore determine the thermal conductivity based on kinetic theory

3. AME 60614 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 3 Electrons – What We’ve Learned Electrons are particles with quantized energy states –store and transport thermal and electrical energy –primary energy carriers in metals –usually approximate their behavior using the Free Electron Model energy wavelength (wave vector) Electrons have a statistical occupation (Fermi-Dirac), quantized (discrete) energy, and only limited numbers at each energy level (density of states) –we can derive the specific heat! We can treat electrons as particles and therefore determine the thermal conductivity based on kinetic theory –Wiedemann Franz relates thermal conductivity to electrical conductivity In real materials, the free electron model is limited because it does not account for interactions with the lattice –energy band is not continuous –the filling of energy bands and band gaps determine whether a material is a conductor, insulator, or semi-conductor

4. AME 60614 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 4 We will consider a gas as a collection of individual particles –monatomic gasses are simplest and can be analyzed from first principles fairly readily (He, Ar, Ne) –diatomic gasses are a little more difficult (H 2, O 2, N 2 )  must account for interactions between both atoms in the molecule –polyatomic gasses are even more difficult Gases – Individual Particles gas … gas

5. AME 60614 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 5 Gases – How to Understand One Understanding a gas – brute force –suppose we wanted to understand a system of N gas particles in a volume V (~10 25 gas molecules in 1 mm 3 at STP)  position & velocity Understanding a gas – statistically –statistical mechanics helps us understand microscopic properties and relate them to macroscopic properties –statistical mechanics obtains the equilibrium distribution of the particles Understanding a gas – kinetically –kinetic theory considers the transport of individual particles (collisions!) under non-equilibrium conditions in order to relate microscopic properties to macroscopic transport properties  thermal conductivity! just not possible

6. AME 60614 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 6 Gases – Statistical Mechanics If we have a gas of N atoms, each with their own kinetic energy ε, we can organize them into “energy levels” each with N i atoms gas … gas total atoms in the system: internal energy of the system: We call each energy level ε i with N i atoms a macrostate Each macrostate consists of individual energy states called microstates these microstates are based on quantized energy  related to the quantum mechanics  Schrödinger’s equation Schrödinger’s equation results in discrete/quantized energy levels (macrostates) which can themselves have different quantum microstates (degeneracy, g i )  can liken it to density of states

7. AME 60614 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 7 Gases – Statistical Mechanics There can be any number of microstates in a given macrostate  called that levels degeneracy g i this number of microstates the is thermodynamic probability, Ω, of a macrostate We describe thermodynamic equilibrium as the most probable macrostate Three fairly important assumptions/postulates (1)The time-average for a thermodynamic variable is equivalent to the average over all possible microstates (2) All microstates are equally probable (3)We assume independent particles Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics gives us the thermodynamic probability, Ω, or number of microstates per macrostate

8. AME 60614 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 8 Gases – Statistics and Distributions The thermodynamic probability can be determined from basic statistics but is dependant on the type of particle. Recall that we called phonons bosons and electrons fermions. Gas atoms we consider boltzons boltzons: distinguishable particles bosons: indistinguishable particles fermions: indistinguishable particles and limited occupancy (Pauli exclusion) Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics Bose-Einstein statistics Fermi-Dirac statistics Fermi-Dirac distribution Bose-Einstein distribution Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution

9. AME 60614 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 9 Gases – What is Entropy? Thought Experiment: consider a chamber of gas expanding into a vacuum ABAB This process is irreversible and therefore entropy increases (additive) The thermodynamic probability also increases because the final state is more probable than the initial state (multiplicative) How is the entropy related to the thermodynamic probability (i.e., microstates)? Only one mathematical function converts a multiplicative operation to an additive operation Boltzmann relation!

10. AME 60614 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 10 Gases – The Partition Function The partition function Z is an useful statistical definition quantity that will be used to describe macroscopic thermodynamic properties from a microscopic representation The probability of atoms in energy level i is simply the ratio of particles in i to the total number of particles in all energy levels leads directly to Maxwell- Boltzmann distribution

11. AME 60614 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 11 Gases – 1 St Law from Partition Function Heat and Work adding heat to a system affects occupancy at each energy level a system doing/receiving work does changes the energy levels First Law of Thermodynamics – Conservation of Energy!

12. AME 60614 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 12 Gases – Equilibrium Properties Energy and entropy in terms of the partition function Z Classical definitions & Maxwell Relations then lead to the statistical definition of other properties chemical potential Gibbs free energy Helmholtz free energy pressure

13. AME 60614 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 13 Gases – Equilibrium Properties enthaply but classically … ideal gas law the Boltzmann constant is directly related to the Universal Gas Constant

14. AME 60614 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 14 Recalling that the specific heat is the derivative of the internal energy with respect to temperature, we can rewrite intensive properties (per unit mass) statistically internal energy entropy Gibbs free energy Helmholtz free energy enthaply specific heat Gases – Equilibrium Properties

15. AME 60614 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 15 Gases – Monatomic Gases In diatomic/polyatomic gasses the atoms in a molecule can vibrate between each other and rotate about each other which all contributes to the internal energy of the “particle” monatomic gasses are simpler because the internal energy of the particle is their kinetic energy and electronic energy (energy states of electrons) an evaluation of the quantum mechanics and additional mathematics can be used to derive translational and electronic partition functions consider the translational energy only we can plug this in to our previous equations internal energyentropy specific heat

16. AME 60614 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 16 Gases – Monatomic Gases Where did P (pressure) come from in the entropy relation? pressure plugging in the translational partition function …. the derivative of the ln(C  V) is 1/V ideal gas law

17. AME 60614 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 17 Gases – Monatomic Gases The electronic energy is more difficult because you have to understand the energy levels of electrons in atoms  not too bad for monatomic gases (We can look up these levels for some choice atoms) Defining derivatives as internal energyentropy specific heat

18. AME 60614 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 18 Gases – Monatomic Helium Consider monatomic hydrogen at 1000 K … I can look up electronic degeneracies and energies to give the following table level g 10 0000 23 229.98497112.282E+1005.2484E+1021.207E+105 30 239.2234393000 48 243.26546693.564E+1068.67E+1082.1091E+111 53 246.21192452.5445E+1076.2648E+1091.5425E+112 63 263.6229289.2705E+1142.4439E+1176.4427E+119

19. AME 60614 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 19 Gases – Monatomic Helium from Incropera and Dewitt

20. AME 60614 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 20 Gases – A Little Kinetic Theory We’ve already discussed kinetic theory in relation to thermal conductivity  individual particles carrying their energy from hot to cold G. Chen The same approach can be used to derive the flux of any property for individual particles  individual particles carrying their energy from hot to cold general flux of scalar property Φ

21. AME 60614 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 21 Gases – Viscosity and Mass Diffusion Consider viscosity from general kinetic theory (flux of momentum)  Newton’s Law Consider mass diffusion from general kinetic theory (flux of mass)  Fick’s Law Note that all these properties are related and depend on the average speed of the gas molecules and the mean free path between collisions

22. AME 60614 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 22 Gases – Average Speed The average speed can be derived from the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution We can derive it based on assuming only translational energy, g i = 1 (good for monatomic gasses – recall that translation dominates electronic) This is a ratio is proportional to a probability density function  by definition the integral of a probability density function over all possible states must be 1 probability that a gas molecule has a given momentum p

23. AME 60614 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 23 Gases – Average Speed From the Maxwell-Boltzmann momentum distribution, the energy, velocity, and speed distributions easily follow

24. AME 60614 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 24 Gases – Mean Free Path The mean free path is the average distance traveled by a gas molecule between collisions  we can simply gas collisions using a hard-sphere, binary collision approach (billiard balls) r incident r target incident particle r incident collision with target particle d 12 cross section defined as: General mean free path Monatomic gas

25. AME 60614 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 25 Gases – Transport Properties Based on this very simple approach, we can determine the transport properties for a monatomic gas to be M is molecular weight Recall, that more rigorous collision dynamics model

26. AME 60614 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 26 Gases – Monatomic Helium from Incropera and Dewitt only 2% difference!

27. AME 60614 Int. Heat Trans. D. B. GoSlide 27 Gases – What We’ve Learned Gases can be treated as individual particles –store and transport thermal energy –primary energy carriers fluids  convection! Gases have a statistical (Maxwell-Boltzmann) occupation, quantized (discrete) energy, and only limited numbers at each energy level –we can derive the specific heat, and many other gas properties using an equilibrium approach We can use non-equilibrium kinetic theory to determine the thermal conductivity, viscosity, and diffusivity of gases The tables in the back of the book come from somewhere!