1. Neuron Structure

2. Synapse

3. The Synapse Synthesis of neurotransmitter (NT)
Storage and transport of NT within vesicles
NT Release
Activation of postsynaptic receptors
Termination of transmitter effect (e.g. reuptake)

4. Resting Potential
Sodium ions are concentrated on the outside of the axon membrane.
Potassium ions are concentrated on the inside of the axon membrane.
Ion channels are closed.
The inside of the axon membrane is more negative that is the outside.

5. Action Potential
Action potential occurs when the membrane potential rapidly shifts from to +40 mV
Ion channels open in the membrane, allowing sodium ions to enter the axon
Sodium entry shifts the membrane potential toward a positive value
Potential is restored when other channels open, allowing potassium ions to exit the axon

7. Myelin
Myelin is a fatty, waxy substance coating the axon of some neurons.
Functions:
Speeds neurotransmission
Insulates neurons from each other
Makes neurotransmission more efficient

8. Neurotransmitters Serotonin Acetylcholine Dopamine Norepinephrine
GABA
Endorphins

9. Midline Brain View

10. Brainstem Brainstem is a primitive portion of brain
Pons: involved in respiration, sleep regulation, dreaming
Medulla: involved in life support functions such as respiration and heart rate
Reticular activating system is an arousal system within the brainstem

11. Subcortical Brain Areas
Corpus callosum: band of axons that interconnects the hemispheres
Thalamus: sensory relay area
Limbic system: involved in emotionality
Hypothalamus: feeding, fleeing, mating, fighting, homeostasis
Cerebellum: involved in motor control

12. Limbic System: Seat of Motivation, Emotions

13. Cerebral Cortex Cortex refers to the outer covering of the brain
Consists of left and right hemispheres
Cortex is divided into lobes
Frontal: Self-awareness, planning, voluntary movement, emotional control, speech, working memory
Parietal: Body sensations
Occipital: Vision
Temporal: Hearing, language comprehension
Localization of function: do discrete circuits carry out different functions?

14. Cortical Lobes

15. Cerebral Cortex

16. Motor and Somatosensory Cortex

17. Language areas: Broca & Wernicke

18. Primary Visual Pathways

19. Primary Visual Pathways

20. Secondary Visual Pathways: Dorsal and Ventral Streams

21. Dorsal and Ventral Visual Pathways

22. Auditory Pathways

23. LeDoux’s two pathways of emotion

24. Nee, et al., STM/LTM article
Damage to Medial Temporal produced LTM deficits while leaving STM in tact. Inferior Temporal = LT visual pattern recognition deficits

25. Medial and Inferior Temporal lobes

26. Perisylvian cortex: STM disruptions

27. Behavioral data confirming STM/LTM distinction
Presentation rate affects primacy but not recency effect
Increased delay affects recency but not primacy effect. (Glanzer & Cunitz, 1966)
Med. Temporal activation for early probes in serial recall paradigm
R infer. parietal for late probes (Talmi, Grady, Goshen-Gottstein, & Moscovitch (2005)

28. STM/LTM distinction or novelty (MTL) and resistance to distraction (frontal)
Ranganath & Blumenfeld (2005) argue that MTL binds novel items together in single representation. STM storage can be disrupted in patients with MT damage when items are novel (novel items rarely used in most STM studies)
Furthermore patients with frontal damage can perform STM task when distractions are minimized.
Sakai, Rowe, & Passingham (2002), subject did STM spatial task – found greater frontal activity on ‘correct’ trials, less on ‘error’ trials suggesting frontal areas important for filtering distractions. Similar findings for words and pseudo words.
Other evidence suggesting that phonological deficits are found in patients with perisylvian damage, thus this area may not be specifically for STM, but may STM tasks may typically require phonological rehearsal.
STM is ‘attentionally mediated activation’ of LTM representations.

29. Episodic retrieval and STM retrieval
Similar processes may exist in LTM, STM processes.
Cabeza, et al., 2002 – episodic retrieval: Subs judge probe word as ‘remembered from earlier list,’ ‘known’ or ‘not seen before’. STM: yes/no to probe after study
Same areas of left frontal active in both cases. Anterior frontal may play a monitoring role.