1. Soil Mechanics-II Soil Stabilization and Improvement
ground
Dr. Attaullah Shah

2. Soil Improvement and stabilization
If soil near the ground surface is strong and has sufficient bearing capacity, then shallow foundation is adopted. i
If the top soil is weak loose, soft or saturated, then the loads of the superstructures has to be transferred to deep foundation-Pile foundation.
Third method comes under the heading foundation soil improvement.
In the case of earth dams, there is no other alternative than compacting the remolded soil in layers to the required density and moisture content. The soil for the dam will be excavated at the adjoining areas and transported to the site.
Soil improvement is frequently termed soil stabilization, which in its broadest sense is alteration of any property of a soil to improve its engineering performance. Soil improvement can be achieved through the following modes:
1. Increases shear strength
2. Reduces permeability, and
3. Reduces compressibility

3. Methods of soil Stabilization
Some of the most common methods of soil stabilization are:
Mechanical compaction
Dynamic compaction
Vibroflotation
Preloading
Sand and stone columns
Use of admixtures
Injection of suitable grouts
Use of geo-textiles
MECHANICAL COMPACTION
Lest expensive, Applicable to both cohesive and cohesion less soils.
For sandy silt clay mixture, the soil is removed and refilled in layers and compacted. For weak soil such as soft clays and silt etc, good quality of soil may be transported.
The control of field compaction is very important in order to obtain the desired soil properties. Compaction of a soil is measured in terms of the dry unit weight of the soil

4. Factors Affecting Compaction
The compaction of soil depends on two major factors.
The moisture content
The compactive effort
The compactive effort is defined as the amount of energy imparted to the soil. With a soil of given moisture content, increasing the amount of compaction results in closer packing of soil particles and increased dry unit weight.
For a particular compactive effort, there is only one moisture content which gives the maximum dry unit weight. The moisture content that gives the maximum dry unit weight is called the optimum moisture content.
If the compactive effort is increased, the maximum dry unit weight also increases, but the optimum moisture content decreases. If all the desired qualities of the material are to be achieved in the field, suitable procedures should be adopted to compact the earth fill.
The following tests are normally carried out in a laboratory.
Standard Proctor test (ASTM Designation D-698), and
Modified Proctor test (ASTM Designation D-1557)

6. EFFECT OF COMPACTION ON ENGINEERING BEHAVIOR
Effect of Moisture Content on Dry Density
Dry density increases with the increase of mositure content as water acts as lubricant initially
After certain limit of optimum moisture content the moisture and air keeps the soil particles apart and further compaction is not easy and the compaction may reduce.
Effect of Compactive Effort on Dry Unit Weight
For all types of soil with all methods of compaction, increasing the amounts of compaction, that is, the energy applied per unit weight of soil, results in an increase in the maximum dry unit weight and a corresponding decrease in the optimum moisture content
Shear Strength of Compacted Soil
The shear strength of a soil increases with the amount of compaction applied. The more the soil is compacted, the greater is the value of cohesion and the angle of shearing resistance. Comparing the shearing strength with the moisture content for a given degree of compaction, it is found that the greatest shear strength is attained at a moisture content lower than the optimum moisture content for maximum dry unit weight.

7. Soil Structure and compactive efforts:
The effects of compaction conditions on soil structure, and thus on the engineering behavior of the soil, vary considerably with soil type and the actual conditions under which the behavior is determined.
Effect of Compaction on Permeability
A minimum permeability occurs at water contents slightly above optimum moisture content (Lambe, 1958a), after which a slight increase in permeability occurs. Increasing the compactive effort decreases the permeability of the soil.
Effect of Compaction on Compressibility
The difference in compaction characteristics between two saturated clay samples at the same density, one compacted on the dry side of optimum and one compacted on the wet side (Lambe, 1958b). At low stresses the sample compacted on the wet side is more compressible than the one compacted on the dry side. However, at high applied stresses the sample compacted on the dry side is more compressible than the sample compacted on the wet side.

8. Field Compaction and Control
The necessary compaction of sub grades of roads, earth fills, and embankments may be obtained by mechanical means. The equipment that are normally used for compaction consists of
1. Smooth wheel rollers
2. Rubber tired rollers
3. Sheeps foot rollers
4. Vibratory rollers
Selection of Equipment for Compaction in the Field
The types of rollers that are recommended for the soils normally met are:
Type of soil Type of roller recommended
Cohesive soil Sheeps foot roller, or Rubber tired roller
Cohesionless soils Rubber-tired roller or Vibratory roller.
Method of Compaction:
The soil is well mixed with water which would give the optimum water content as determined in the laboratory. It is then spread out in a layer. The thickness of the layer normally varies from 15 to 22.5 cm.

9. The number of passes required to obtain the specified density has to be
found by determining the density of the compacted material after every definite number of passes.
The density may be checked for different thickness in the layer. The suitable thickness of the layer and the number of passes required to obtain the required density will have to be determined.
The number of passes required to obtain the specified density has to be found by determining the density of the compacted material after every definite number of passes.
In cohesive soils, densities of the order of 95 percent of standard Proctor can be obtained
with practically any of the rollers and tampers; however, vibrators are not effective in cohesive soils. Where high densities are required in cohesive soils in the order of 95 percent of modified Proctor, rubber tired rollers with tire loads in the order of 100 kN and tire pressure in the order of 600 kN/m2 are effective. In cohesionless sands and gravels, vibrating type equipment is effective in producing densities up to 100 percent of modified Proctor. Where densities are needed in excess of 100percent of modified Proctor such as for base courses for heavy duty air fields and highways, rubber tired rollers with tire loads of 130 kN and above and tire pressure of 1000 kN/m2 can be used to produce densities up to 103 to 104 percent of modified Proctor.

10. Field Control of Compaction
The procedure of checking of compaction in field involves:
Measurement of the dry unit weight,
Measurement of the moisture content
The following tests are used for this purpose.
Sand cone method, (ASTM Designation D-1556)
Rubber balloon method, (ASTM Designation: D 2167
Nuclear method, and
Proctor needle method.

11. COMPACTION FOR DEEPER LAYERS OF SOIL
Three types of dynamic compaction for deeper layers
1. Vibroflotation.
2. Dropping of a heavy weight.
3. Blasting.
Vibroflotation
The Vibroflotation technique is used for compacting granular soil only. The vibroflot is a cylindrical tube containing water jets at top and bottom and equipped with a rotating eccentric weight, which develops a horizontal vibratory motion as shown in Fig.
The vibroflot is sunk into the soil using the lower jets and is then raised in successive small increments, during which the surrounding material is compacted by the vibration process. The enlarged hole around the vibroflot is backfilled with suitable granular material. This method is very effective for increasing the density of a sand deposit for depths up to 30 m. Probe spacing's of compaction holes should be on a grid pattern of about 2 m to produce relative densities greater than 70 percent over the entire area.
If the sand is coarse, the spacing may be somewhat larger.

12. Dropping of a Heavy Weight
The repeated dropping of a heavy weight on to the ground surface is one of the simplest of the methods of compacting loose soil.
The method, known as deep dynamic compaction or deep dynamic consolidation may be used to compact cohesion less or cohesive soils.
The method uses a crane to lift a concrete or steel block, weighing up to 500 kN and up to heights of 40 to 50 m, from which height it is allowed to fall freely on to the ground surface. The weight leaves a deep pit at the surface. The process is then repeated either at the same location or sequentially over other parts of the area to be compacted.
The principal claims of this method are:
1. Depth of recompaction can reach up to 10 to 12 m.
2. All soils can be compacted.
3. The method produces equal settlements more quickly than do static (surcharge type) loads.

13. Blasting
Blasting, through the use of buried, time-delayed explosive charges, has been used to densify loose, granular soils. The sands and gravels must be essentially cohesion-less with a maximum of 15 percent of their particles passing the No. 200 sieve size and 3 percent passing mm size. The moisture condition of the soil is also important for surface tension forces in the partially saturated state limit the effectiveness of the technique. Thus the soil, as well as being granular, must be dry or saturated, which requires sometimes pre-wetting the site via construction of a dike and reservoir system.
PRELOADING
Preloading is a technique that can successfully be used to densify soft to very soft cohesive soils. Large-scale construction sites composed of weak silts and clays or organic materials (particularly marine deposits), sanitary land fills, and other compressible soils may often be stabilized effectively and economically by preloading. Preloading compresses the soil.

14. SAND COMPACTION PILES AND STONE COLUMNS
Sand compaction piles consists of driving a hollow steel pipe with the bottom closed with a collapsible plate down to the required depth; filling it with sand, and withdrawing the pipe while air pressure is directed against the sand inside it.
The in-situ soil is densified while the pipe is being withdrawn, and the sand backfill prevents the soil surrounding the compaction pipe from collapsing as the pipe is withdrawn.
Stone Columns
The method described for installing sand compaction piles or the vibroflot described earlier can be used to construct stone columns. The size of the stones used for this purpose range from about 6 to 40 mm. Stone columns have particular application in soft inorganic, cohesive soils and are generally inserted on a volume displacement basis.

15. SOIL STABILIZATION BY THE USE OF ADMIXTURES
The physical properties of soils can often economically be improved by the use of admixtures. Some of the more widely used admixtures include lime, Portland cement and asphalt.
Soil-lime Stabilization
Lime stabilization improves the strength, stiffness and durability of fine grained materials. In addition, lime is sometimes used to improve the properties of the fine grained fraction of granular soils. Lime has been used as a stabilizer for soils in the base courses of pavement systems, under concrete foundations, on embankment slopes and canal linings.
Soil-Cement Stabilization: Soil-cement is the reaction product of an intimate mixture of pulverized soil and measured amounts of Portland cement and water, compacted to high density. As the cement hydrates, the mixture becomes a hard, durable structural material. Hardened soil-cement has the capacity to bridge over local weak points in a sub grade. When properly made, it does not soften when exposed to wetting and drying, or freezing and thawing cycles.
Bituminous Soil Stabilization: Bituminous materials such as asphalts, tars, and pitches are used in various consistencies to improve the engineering properties of soils. Mixed with cohesive soils, bituminous materials improve the bearing capacity and soil strength at low moisture content. The purpose of incorporating bitumen into such soils is to water proof them as a means to maintain a low moisture content.

16. SOIL STABILIZATION BY INJECTION OF SUITABLE GROUTS
Grouting is a process whereby fluid like materials, either in suspension, or solution form, are injected into the subsurface soil or rock. The purpose of injecting a grout may be any one or more of the following:
1. To decrease permeability.
2. To increase shear strength.
3. To decrease compressibility.
Please study the grouting techniques of previous semester for further details.