3. Socionature and the design of national parks and conservation areas No universal criteria about how parks and conservation areas are defined. –American model Recreation and beauty, an escape back to wilderness. Humans are visitors. –African model Wildlife viewing Displacement of local people in the formation of first parks More cooperative relationships evolving –British/European model Emphasis on freezing past cultural landscapes and the nature they interacted with

5. Yellowstone National Park (YNP) Since 1916, YNP and other parks have aimed to preserve the land in its ‘natural’ condition —how it looked before white people arrived. Leopold Report of 1963: “A national park should represent a vignette of primitive America.”

6. Mandate unrealistic Climate change –Mountain pine beetle infestations due to warmer winters –Increases in fires –Forests are not going to stay the same as when they were at park establishment

7. Glacier National Park Joshua Tree National Park Sequoia National Park In 50 years’ time, climate change will have altered some US parks so profoundly that their very names will be anachronisms.

11. Green neocolonialism Deployment of environmental views that result in colonial relations marked by control from afar, lack of self- determiniation, and unbalanced acquisition or access to resources

14. Climate change, carbon sequestration and tropical forests

16. Countries and communities are paid for keeping land in forest This helps slow the growth of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere However, it also transfers power from local forest owners to global actors involved in climate change and their system of resource management Not just a tree in the rainforest, trees become part of global economy United Nations Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation (REDD) program

18. Green neocolonialism REDD “lock-up” forests for climate change mitigation Peasant movements contend it could threaten food security by forcing farmers to grow trees instead of food Contracts and terms of forest management not always favorable for farmer

23. Emerging hybrid models Australian model –Ayers Rock: Now called Uluru and more voice given to Aboriginals in its management

29. The reef has lost over half of its coral cover in 27 years. Representation or construction of the GBR versus more of the ecological reality

31. Environmental issues arise from tourism Terms like ecotourism, sustainable tourism and responsible tourism are rooted in the concept of sustainable development, or development that "meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs" (Bruntland Commission, 1987). Sustainable tourism meets the needs of present tourists and host regions while protecting and enhancing opportunities for the future. Ecotourism, when properly executed based on these principles, exemplifies the benefits of socially and environmentally sound tourism development.