1. Spectrum of Jewish Observance Dr. Laurence Boxer

2. A simplified view of the spectrum Least traditionalMost traditional Reform Reconstructionist Secular/Humanist Unaffiliated ConservativeOrthodox, including Chassidim Modern Orthodox others

3. Prior to 18 th Century …... Jewish practice was largely what, today, we would call insular and Orthodox. The world outside traditional religious practice offered little - Christianity was (almost) universally hostile, regarding Jews as Christ-killers & scapegoats. Christian culture was dominated by poverty, ignorance, illiteracy. Muslim-dominated societies had similar shortcomings.

4. Israel ben Eliezer – Baal Shem Tov “BeSHT” (1698 – 1760) Eastern Europe (Ukraine, Poland) – founder of Chassidism (today, regarded ultra-Orthodox, but revolutionary in 1700s) Religious life stressed study of Torah, Talmud – but intensive study impractical amidst poverty BeSHT taught greater stress on love of nature; mysticism; joy in pleasures of life; piety & kindness His change of emphasis became popular Revolutionary teaching – rebbe as religious intermediary

5. Elijah ben Shlomo Zalman – the Vilna Gaon (1720-1797) Gaon – “genius” – was outstanding Torah/Talmud scholar of era Agreed w. BeSHT reforms needed, but not the radical reforms of Chassidism. Advocated, instead: Simplification of prayers Reforms in study and teaching methods Secular knowledge (math, science) Followers: Mitnagdim (Opponents)

6. Conflict between Chassidim & Mitnagdim Radical changes by Chassidim, particularly de- emphasis on study & rebbe as intermediary, regarded as heresy by Mitnagdim Cherem (excommunication) & counter- excommunication Eventual moderation of views toward each other, begrudging acceptance Both sides recognized Western Enlightenment as greater threat to Judaism

7. Moses Mendelsohn (1728-86) Scholar of Torah, Talmud, secular philosophy; translated Torah into German, with commentary; author, educator, man of letters Attracted attention of Berlin’s Christian intellectuals, particularly playwright Lessing. Promoted breakdown of social, intellectual barriers between Christians and Jews. Promoted freedom of conscience (as opposed to community enforcement of religious law) – a pillar of Reform philosophy. Mendelsohn’s followers pioneered Reform Judaism, which gained greatest popularity in Western Europe and America.

8. Rabbi Isaac Mayer Wise (1819-1900). Founder, longtime head of Hebrew Union College –1 st American rabbinical seminary (Reform) Before 1880s, most American Jews from Western Europe, where Reform was gaining popularity Wise dreamt of religious unification of American Jewry; was a moderate reformer who could cooperate with more traditional Jews

9. The Trefa Banquet – July, 1883 http://www.americanjewisharchives.org/trefa1.htm Celebration of 1 st class of graduates of Hebrew Union College – Reform rabbinical seminary See http://www.ajhs.org/publications/chapters/chapter.cfm?documentID=241http://www.ajhs.org/publications/chapters/chapter.cfm?documentID=241 Multiple violations of kashrut (laws of kosher food) – Wise claimed innocence Accentuated break between moderate & radical reformers

10. Pittsburgh Platform - 1885 Meeting of American Reform rabbinical leadership Radical views prevailed, including declarations rejecting much Torah legislation, including kashrut; emphasizing ethics & prophetic ideals rejecting return to Israel rejecting belief in a personal Messiah, substituting belief in a Messianic age to be brought about by cultural progress

11. Reactions to Trefa Banquet & Pittsburgh Platform 1886 - moderate reformers established Jewish Theological Seminary of America – a pillar of Conservative Judaism 1888 – American Orthodox community was forming a movement, institutions By 1880s, more Jewish immigrants from Eastern Europe – many receptive to moderate reform, but not the radical Reform reforms.

12. Solomon Schechter (1847-1915) Born in Romania; educated in Vienna; scholar in Cambridge & London; head of Jewish Theological Seminary 1902-1915 Sought middle way between Eastern European Orthodoxy & American radical Reform Stressed unity (“Catholic Israel”), tradition, scholarship Founded United Synagogue of America (now, United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism), 1912 Stature & appeals for unity exercised moderating influence on Reform leadership

13. Example – “fundamentalist” vs. “modern” Scriptural basis for opposing view: Psalms 90, 4: For a thousand years in thy sight are but as yesterday when it is past, and as a watch in the night. Hence, modern science does not conflict with Bible’s 6-“day” Creation. Michaelangelo, Creation of Adam Fundamentalist view: Creation is 5763 years old. Things that appear older were created that way, for G-d’s mysterious purposes.

14. Philosophical Differences: Origins of Torah Orthodox: Given by G-d to Moses at Sinai Conservative, Reform: divinely inspired, but modified over centuries by scribal error, disagreements, etc.

15. Philosophical Differences: Role of Torah Orthodox, Conservative: legislation is binding. C more willing than O to reinterpret with respect to modern scholarship & new situations Reform: ethical legislation remains relevant. Individuals should study, then decide for themselves what ritual legislation is meaningful Reconstructionist: Torah legislation is “folkways”

16. Philosophical Differences: Land of Israel Most members of all Jewish movements are Zionist Some ultra-O are anti-Zionist, believing only the Messiah should restore Israel to the Jewish people Some liberal (Reform, Reconstructionist, secular/humanist) Jews are anti-Zionist, believing Judaism should be a religion and not a nationalist culture

17. References American Jewish Historical Society, The “Trefa Banquet” and the End of a Dream: http://www.ajhs.org/publications/chapters/chapter.cfm?documentID=241 http://www.ajhs.org/publications/chapters/chapter.cfm?documentID=241 Bentwich, Norman: Solomon Schechter: A Biography, Jewish Publication Society of America, Philadelphia, 1938 Chabad-Lubavitch (Chassidic group): http://www.chabad.org/http://www.chabad.org/ Eban, Abba: My People: The Story of the Jews, Behrman House, NY, 1968 Grayzel, Solomon: A History of the Jews, Jewish Publication Society of America, Philadelphia, 1947 Jewish Reconstructionist Federation: http://www.jrf.org/http://www.jrf.org/ Reform Judaism: http://rj.org/http://rj.org/ United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism: http://uscj.org/index1.htmlhttp://uscj.org/index1.html Wiesel, Elie: Souls on Fire, Simon & Schuster, NY, 1982 Young Israel (Modern Orthodox group): http://www.youngisrael.org/http://www.youngisrael.org/