1. CS 478 - Instance Based Learning1 Instance Based Learning

2. CS 478 - Instance Based Learning2 Instance Based Learning Classify based on local similarity Ranges from simple nearest neighbor to case-based and analogical reasoning Use local information near the current query instance to decide the classification of that instance As such can represent quite complex decision surfaces in a simple manner

3. k-Nearest Neighbor Approach Simply store all (or some representative subset) of the examples in the training set. When desiring to generalize on a new instance, measure the distance from the new instance to one or more stored instances which vote to decide the class of the new instance. No need to pre-process a specific hypothesis (Lazy vs. Eager learning) – Fast learning – Can be slow during execution and require significant storage – Some models index the data or reduce the instances stored

4. CS 478 - Instance Based Learning4 k-Nearest Neighbor (cont.) Naturally supports real valued attributes Typically use Euclidean distance Nominal/unknown attributes can just be a 1/0 distance (more on other distance metrics later) The output class for the query instance is set to the most common class of its k nearest neighbors where  (x,y) = 1 if x = y, else 0 k greater than 1 is more noise resistant, but a very large k would lead to less accuracy as less relevant neighbors have more influence (common values: k=3, k=5)

5. CS 478 - Instance Based Learning5 k-Nearest Neighbor (cont.) Can also do distance weighted voting where the strength of a neighbors influence is proportional to its distance Inverse of distance squared is a common weight Gaussian is another common distance weight In this case can let k be larger (even all points if desired), because the more distant points have negligible influence

6. CS 478 - Instance Based Learning6 Regression with k-nn Can also do regression by letting the output be the weighted mean of the k nearest neighbors For distance weighted regression Where f(x) is the output value for instance x

7. CS 478 - Instance Based Learning7 Attribute Weighting One of the main weaknesses of nearest neighbor is irrelevant features, since they can dominate the distance Can create algorithms which weight the attributes (Note that backprop and ID3 etc, do higher order weighting of features) No longer lazy evaluation since you need to come up with a portion of your hypothesis (attribute weights) before generalizing Still an open area of research – Should weighting be local or global? – What is the best method, etc.?

8. CS 478 - Instance Based Learning8 Reduction Techniques Wilson, D. R. and Martinez, T. R., Reduction Techniques for Exemplar-Based Learning Algorithms, Machine Learning Journal, vol. 38, no. 3, pp. 257-286, 2000. Create a subset or other representative set of prototype nodes Approaches – Leave-one-out reduction - Drop instance if it would still be classified correctly – Growth algorithm - Only add instance if it is not already classified correctly - both order dependent – More global optimizing approaches – Just keep central points – Just keep border points (pre-process noisy instances) – Drop 5 (Wilson & Martinez) maintains almost full accuracy with approximately 15% of the original instances

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10. 10 Radial Basis Function (RBF) Networks Each prototype node computes a distance based kernel function (Gaussian is common) Prototype nodes form a hidden layer in a neural network Train top layer with simple delta rule to get outputs Thus, prototype nodes learn weightings for each class 2 A 3 xy 1 B 4 1 x y 2 3 4

11. CS 478 - Instance Based Learning11 Radial Basis Function Networks Number of nodes and placement (means) Sphere of influence (deviation) – Too small - no generalization, should have some overlap – Too large - saturation, lose local effects, long training Output layer weights - linear or non-linear nodes – Delta rule variations – Direct matrix weight calculation

12. CS 478 - Instance Based Learning12 Node Placement One for each instance of the training set Random subset of instances Clustering - Unsupervised or supervised - k-means style vs. constructive Genetic Algorithms Random Coverage - Curse of Dimensionality Node adjustment - Competitive Learning style Dynamic addition and deletion of nodes

13. CS 478 - Instance Based Learning13 RBF vs. BP Line vs. Sphere - mix-and-match approaches Potential Faster Training - nearest neighbor localization - Yet more data and hidden nodes typically needed Local vs Global, less extrapolation (ala BP), have reject capability (avoid false positives) RBF can have problems with irrelevant features just like nearest neighbor

14. CS 478 - Instance Based Learning14 Distance Metrics Wilson, D. R. and Martinez, T. R., Improved Heterogeneous Distance Functions, Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 1-34, 1997. Normalization of features Main question: How best to handle nominal inputs

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21. CS 478 - Instance Based Learning21 Instance Based Learning Assignment See http://axon.cs.byu.edu/~martinez/classes/478/Assignments. html http://axon.cs.byu.edu/~martinez/classes/478/Assignments. html