1. Ben Kravitz November 12, 2009 Limb Scanning and Occultation

2. Occultation An occultation is an event that occurs when one object is hidden by another object that passes between it and the observer. very commonly used in astronomy

3. In the case of atmospheric observations, we pick a source of some kind and measure how the radiation from that source passes through the atmosphere. (The signal gets occulted by the atmosphere.) Occultation

4. How it works

5. GPS Radio Occultation Limb Emission/Sounding Solar Occultation Techniques

6. GPS Radio Occultation Fairly new technique (first applied in 1995) Requires a constellation of GPS satellites and (at least one) Low Earth Orbit satellite

8. Refractivity (N) N = 77.6(p/T) + 3.73x10 5 (e/T 2 ) - 4.03x10 7 (n e /f 2 ) p = atmospheric pressure T = temperature e = water vapor pressure n e = electron density (number of electrons per m 3 ) f = carrier frequency of the GPS

9. N =4.03x10 7 (n e /f 2 ) In the ionosphere, pressure is negligible, so the refractivity gives us electron density.

10. N = 77.6(p/T) In the stratosphere, electron density is negligible, as is water vapor pressure, so the refractivity gives us temperature.

11. N = 77.6(p/T) + 3.73x10 5 (e/T 2 ) In the troposphere, only electron density is negligible, giving us profiles of temperature and humidity. GPS can determine precipitable water at sub-mm accuracy over the globe

12. N = 77.6(p/T) + 3.73x10 5 (e/T 2 ) Ignoring this part gives us the “dry temperature.” This is very accurate in low humidity environments (like the stratosphere). dry temperature ≤ actual temperature

13. GPS RO systems GPS/Met COSMIC/FORMOSAT-3 - Constellation Observing System for Meteorology, Ionosphere, and Climate

14. Verifying GPS RO Comparison with AMSU Comparison with radiosondes

15. Comparison with AMSU

16. Radiosondes are the only technology that has provided us with over three decades of continuous data Radiosondes have an emissivity Radiosondes

17. Useful for a very stable, accurate long- term climate record across the entire globe Better numerical weather prediction Determining atmospheric structure What we do with GPS RO data

18. Typhoon Jangmi approaching Taiwan

19. Determining Atmospheric Structure

20. Can also determine tropopause height (using some very complicated algorithms) - this is very recent research

21. Earth’s Limb

23. Limb Emission/Sounding The limb of the atmosphere emits radiation We measure the limb at each vertical level which tells us about the atmospheric properties

24. Limb Emission/Sounding SCIAMACHY - coordinates with nadir measurements to give total column profiles of greenhouse gases OSIRIS Microwave Limb Sounder (MLS)

29. “onion-peeling” method

30. Solar Occultation Instruments Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment (SAGE): 1979-1981 SAGE II: 1984-2005 SAGE III: 2002-2005 Optical Spectrograph and Infrared Imager System (OSIRIS): 2001- present

31. Testing OSIRIS Ran a climate model of Kasatochi volcano (same model used to simulate Pinatubo) Output aerosol optical depth Compared modeled optical depth with OSIRIS retrievals The agreement was pretty good, but there was an unresolved discrepancy which we cannot yet explain.

32. Minor tests of OSIRIS Carbonyl sulfide (OCS) OSIRIS can compare its background sulfate aerosol measurements to those from SAGE

33. Stratospheric Aerosols

34. Tropospheric aerosols get scavenged by rain - have an atmospheric lifetime of about two weeks (or less) Stratospheric aerosols have an atmospheric lifetime of 1-3 years until they fall into the troposphere

35. Soufriere Volcano Eruption on St. Vincent (in the Caribbean) April 1979 (SAGE launched in February 1979) The first satellite observed volcanic eruption

37. Mount Pinatubo Eruption in the Philippines June 1991 (SAGE II) The largest eruption in recent history (20 megatons of SO 2 injected into the stratosphere)

42. SAGE Intercomparison

46. Other Sources of Radiation

47. Moonlight (lunar occultation) Starlight: Global Ozone Monitoring by Occultation of Stars (GOMOS) Other Sources of Radiation