1. From: Understanding Earth (Grotzinger & Jordan 2010)

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4. THE IRON CATASTROPHE The important thing they forgot to mention is that the sinking of the iron released great amounts of potential energy which melted the entire earth, and that allowed the differentiation to take place. From: Understanding Earth (Grotzinger & Jordan 2010)

5. COMPARISON OF VENUS’, EARTH’S, AND MARS’ TOPOGRAPHY From: Understanding Earth (Grotzinger & Jordan 2010)

6. From: Understanding Earth (Grotzinger & Jordan 2010) Known, large meteorite impact craters

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24. Mid-Cambrian (510 Ma): After the breakup of Rodinia, Laurentia straddled the equator. Its southern side was a passive continental margin, bounded on the south by the Iapetus Ocean. From: Understanding Earth (Grotzinger & Jordan 2010)

25. Late Ordovician (450 Ma): The island arc built up by the southward-directed subduction of Iapetus lithosphere collided with Laurentia in the mid- to late- Ordovician, causing the Taconic orogeny. From: Understanding Earth (Grotzinger & Jordan 2010)

26. Early Devonian (400 Ma): The collision of Laurentia with Baltica caused the Caledonian orogeny and formed Laurussia. The southward continuation of the Convergence caused the Acadian orogeny. From: Understanding Earth (Grotzinger & Jordan 2010)

27. Early Carboniferous (340 Ma): The collision of Gondwana with Laurussia began With the Variscan orogeny in what is now central Europe. From: Understanding Earth (Grotzinger & Jordan 2010)

28. Late Carboniferous (300 Ma): Continued collision of Gondwana and Laurasia along the margin of the N. American craton, causing the Apalacian orogeny. At the same time, Siberia converged with Laurussia in the Ural Orogeny to form Laurasia, while the Hercynian orogeny created new mountain belts across Europe and N. Africa. From: Understanding Earth (Grotzinger & Jordan 2010)

29. Early Permian (270 Ma): The end product of these episodes of continental Convergence was the supercontinent of Pangea. From: Understanding Earth (Grotzinger & Jordan 2010)

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