1. Lecture-3 1 Intro to Earth Dynamics

2. Lecture-3 2 Topics for Intro to Earth Dynamics F The gross radial structure of the Earth (chemical and mechanical boundaries) F Heat sources and heat transfer F Convection

3. Lecture-3 3 Radial Earth Structure F The structure and properties of the Earth vary most significantly with the radius of the Earth (equivalently, with depth) F For example, a rock sample from St. Louis is much more similar to a rock taken from 2,500 km to the west (California) than to one taken from 2,500 km below St. Louis.

4. Lecture-3 4 Radial Earth Structure F So the simplest model of the Earth is one in which all properties vary only with depth F Names for this kind of Earth model include –radial –1D, or one-dimensional –spherically symmetric –average –homogeneous –layered

5. Lecture-3 5 Laterally-Varying Earth Structure F Obviously, more complicated (and realistic) models of the Earth include lateral variations in structure. These types of models are called: –3D, or three-dimensional –laterally varying –heterogeneous

6. Lecture-3 6 The Three Major Chemical Radial Divisions F Crust F Mantle F Core

7. Lecture-3 7 The Shallowest Layer of the Earth: the Crust F The crust is the most heterogeneous layer in the Earth; it is the most poorly described by a radial model F The crust is on average 33 km thick for continents and 10 km thick beneath oceans; however it varies from 1-70 km globally.

8. Lecture-3 8 The Shallowest Layer of the Earth: the Crust F The boundary between the crust and the mantle is mostly chemical. The crust and mantle have different compositions. F This boundary is referred to as the “Moho” F It was discovered in 1909 by the Croatian seismologist, Andrya Mohorovicic.

9. Lecture-3 9 Middle Earth: The Mantle F Earth’s mantle exists from the crust to a depth of 2891 km (radius of 3480 km) F It is further subdivided into: u The uppermost mantle (crust to 400 km depth) u The transition zone (400 – 700 km depth) u The mid-mantle (700 to about 2650 km depth) u The lowermost mantle, aka D” (2650 – 2891 km depth)

10. Lecture-3 10 Middle Earth: The Mantle F The uppermost mantle is composed dominantly of olivine; lesser components include pyroxene, enstatite, and garnet F We have samples of the upper mantle that have been shoved to the Earth’s surface by tectonic processes (xenoliths, kimberlites)

11. Lecture-3 11 Earth’s Core F Owing to the great pressure inside the Earth the Earth’s core is actually freezing as the Earth gradually cools F The boundary between the liquid outer core and the solid inner core occurs at a radius of about 1220 km.

12. Lecture-3 12 Earth’s Outer Core F The radius of Earth’s outer core is known to within 3-4 km (3480 km) F The boundary between the mantle and outer core is sharp F There is a dramatic change in chemistry and phase at the core-mantle boundary (CMB)

13. Lecture-3 13 Earth’s Outer Core F The change is density across the CMB is greater than that at the Earth’s surface! F The outer core is mostly an alloy of iron and nickel in liquid form. F The viscosity of the outer core is similar to that of water, it flows kilometers per year and creates the Earth’s magnetic field. F The outer core is the most homogeneous part of the Earth

14. Lecture-3 14 Earth’s Inner Core F The inner core is more purely iron than the outer core; as the core freezes impurities are increasingly concentrated in the liquid part. F As the core freezes latent heat is released; this heat causes the outer core to convect and so generates a magnetic field.

15. Lecture-3 15 Earth’s Inner Core F There is no major boundary deeper than the inner core – outer core boundary (ICB) F Some speculate that there is a subtle transition about 200 km below the ICB, but this is controversial

16. Lecture-3 16 Mechanical Layering

17. Lecture-3 17 Mechanical Layers: 1.Lithosphere 2.Asthenosphere 3.Mesosphere

18. Lecture-3 18 Mechanical Layers - Lithosphere F The lithosphere is the uppermost 50-100 km of the Earth. F There is not a strict boundary between the lithosphere and the asthenosphere as there is between the crust and mantle F It consists of both crust and mantle F It behaves rigidly, like a solid, over very long time periods.

19. Lecture-3 19 Mechanical Layers - Asthenosphere F The asthenosphere exists between depths of 100-200 km F It is the weakest part of the mantle. F It is a solid over short time scales, but behaves like a fluid over millions of years F The asthenosphere decouples the lithosphere (tectonic plates) from the rest of the mantle.

20. Lecture-3 20 Mechanical Layers: Mesosphere F The bulk of the lower mantle is termed the mesosphere and is stronger than the asthenosphere F However, it does behave like a fluid over long time scales (convects) F It is not clear if the whole mantle convects as one layer or two

21. Lecture-3 21 Earth Structure Summary F The most dramatic variations in Earth structure occur radially (not laterally) F The Earth can be divided radially according to chemical composition (crust, mantle, core) or mechanical behavior (lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesosphere, outer core, inner core)

22. Lecture-3 22 Intro to Earth Dynamics F So why are the mantle and core moving around all the time ? F The fundamental answer is heat. The Earth is trying to cool itself.

23. Lecture-3 23 Heat Sources F Why is the Earth hot ? –accretionary heat –radioactive decay –adiabatic compression –tidal influences of moon and Sun (minor) –latent heat from phase transitions (minor)

24. Lecture-3 24 Heat Transfer (1) The Earth is cooling over time because it is much warmer than the surrounding vacuum of space. (2) Heat generally “moves” from hotter objects or regions to cooler objects or regions. (3) The “movement” of heat is generally called heat transfer.

25. Lecture-3 25 Heat Transfer F Heat transfer generally occurs in one of four modes: –conduction –convection –advection –radiation

26. Lecture-3 26 Radiative Heat Transfer F Materials can cool themselves by emitting electromagnetic radiation (light waves) F If you stand in the sun and become warmer you are being radiatively heated by the sun as it tries to cool itself. F The frequency of the radiation emitted by a body is related to its temperature.

27. Lecture-3 27 Conduction F Conduction is the most familiar mode of heat transfer. In this mode heat is transferred by the diffusion of atomic vibrations. F Materials which readily conduct heat are called conductors. Examples ? F Materials which are not conductive are called insulators. Examples ?

28. Lecture-3 28 Conduction F So in general metals are good conductors and rocks are poor conductors of heat. F Thus, it takes a long time for heat to conduct through the Earth’s mantle (billions and billions of years).

29. Lecture-3 29 Convection F Convection is a mode of heat transfer in which material (mass) undergoes large scale motion. F The classic example is a pot of boiling water. F Advection is closely related to convection.

30. Lecture-3 30 Convection (1) Sometimes conduction is more efficient than convection; sometimes it is the opposite. (2) Which mechanism is more efficient depends on material properties. (3) The mode of heat transfer that is more efficient will dominate.

31. Lecture-3 31 Convection F It turns out that in the Earth’s mantle convection is more efficient than conduction. F Hence, the Earth’s mantle is moving just as a pot of boiling water does. F But how can this happen? Isn’t the Earth’s mantle a solid ?

32. Lecture-3 32 Summary F Earth’s radial structure can be divided chemically into three main regions: crust, mantle, core. F The Earth can also be divided mechanically into the lithosphere, asthenosphere, and mesosphere. F The Earth is furiously trying to cool itself and the most efficient way for this to happen is by convection.

33. Lecture-3 33 Summary F Both the liquid, metallic core and the solid rocky mantle are convecting (but separately) F Mantle convection gives rise to plate tectonics (e.g. continental drift) F Convection in the core gives rise to Earth’s magnetic field