1. Peace and Conflict in West Africa: Dealing with ex-combatants in Sierra Leone and Liberia Walt Kilroy School of Law and Government, Dublin City University walt.kilroy@dcu.ie The support of the Jesuit Centre for Faith and Justice and of Trócaire is gratefully acknowledged.

2. 2 “In current usage... peacebuilding is an attempt, after a peace has been negotiated or imposed, to address the sources of present hostility and build local capacities for conflict resolution”. - Doyle and Sambanis, 2006, Making War and Building Peace, Princeton: Princeton University Press, p. 22 Ways to “improve the prospects for peaceful governance” include: Strengthening state institutions Increasing political participation Engaging in land reform Deepening civil society Finding ways to respect ethnic identities A definition of peacebuilding

3. 3 Disarmament Demobilisation Reintegration “ Disarmament, demobilization and reintegration programmes are often at the nexus of peacekeeping, post-conflict peacebuilding and development” - UN Secretary General’s report on DDR to General Assembly (2006: 8)

4. 4 Disarmament is the collection, documentation, control and disposal of small arms, ammunition, explosives and light and heavy weapons of combatants and often also of the civilian population. Disarmament is the collection, documentation, control and disposal of small arms, ammunition, explosives and light and heavy weapons of combatants and often also of the civilian population. - UN Secretary General (2006) Surrendered arms stored under UN peacekeepers’ supervision Bunia, Democratic Republic of Congo, May 2005 Disarmament Demobilisation Reintegration

5. 55 Combatants from MODEL lining up to surrender their weapons as part of the DDR process in Liberia in 2004. (Photo: IRIN) Disarmament Demobilisation Reintegration

6. 6 Registration of ex-combatants Bunia, Democratic Republic of Congo May 2005 Disarmament Demobilisation Reintegration Demobilization is the formal and controlled discharge of active combatants from armed forces or other armed groups. Demobilization is the formal and controlled discharge of active combatants from armed forces or other armed groups. UN Secretary General (2006) Involves registration in camps, and immediate support packages. Involves registration in camps, and immediate support packages.

7. 7 Bunia, Democratic Republic of Congo May 2005 Disarmament Demobilisation Reintegration Reintegration is the process by which ex-combatants acquire civilian status and gain sustainable employment and income. Reintegration is essentially a social and economic process with an open timeframe, primarily taking place in communities at the local level. - UN Secretary General (2006)

8. 8 DDR as an integral part of the peace process Usually part of final peace agreement Usually part of final peace agreement Does not make agreement inevitable Does not make agreement inevitable Can be halted by return to hostilities Can be halted by return to hostilities ‘...an interplay, a subtle interaction, between the dynamics of a peace process’ and how DDR is implemented (Berdal, 1996: 73) ‘...an interplay, a subtle interaction, between the dynamics of a peace process’ and how DDR is implemented (Berdal, 1996: 73)

9. 9 DDR Literature Early literature: Berdal (1996) Early literature: Berdal (1996) World Bank etc: Colletta et al (1996) World Bank etc: Colletta et al (1996) Maturing literature: Batchelor and Kingma (2004) Maturing literature: Batchelor and Kingma (2004) Quantitive Studies: Humphreys and Weinstein (2007), Pugel (2006) Quantitive Studies: Humphreys and Weinstein (2007), Pugel (2006) Best practice: SIDDR (2006), IDDRS (2006) Best practice: SIDDR (2006), IDDRS (2006) Muggah (various) Muggah (various) Contemporary Security Policy, Vol 27, No 1, April 2006 Contemporary Security Policy, Vol 27, No 1, April 2006

10. 10 Integrated DDR Standards Produced by collection of UN agencies (2006) Produced by collection of UN agencies (2006) 700+ pages, with Operational Guide 700+ pages, with Operational Guide Available on web (www.unddr.org), open to revision Available on web (www.unddr.org), open to revision Principles: Principles: People-centred People-centred Flexible, transparent and accountable Flexible, transparent and accountable Nationally-owned Nationally-owned Integrated Integrated Well planned Well planned

11. 1111 What works well – and doesn’t Interaction with peace process Interaction with peace process Building of confidence Building of confidence Reduction in arms Reduction in arms Children’s reintegration and rehabilitation Children’s reintegration and rehabilitation Women face greater problems in reintegrating, but are not catered for well in DDR programmes Women face greater problems in reintegrating, but are not catered for well in DDR programmes Gaps in funding, delays in providing benefits Gaps in funding, delays in providing benefits Finding livelihoods for ex- combatants Finding livelihoods for ex- combatants

12. 12 DDR in Africa since 1990 Angola Mozambique Ethiopia Eritrea Namibia Burundi Sierra Leone Liberia Côte d’Ivoire DRC Sudan KEY: Early cases Recent Underway/proposed

13. 13 Sierra Leone chronology 1700s: departure point for slave trade 1700s: departure point for slave trade 1787: Colony for freed slaves set up 1787: Colony for freed slaves set up 1808: Freetown (and later rest the country) becomes British crown colony 1808: Freetown (and later rest the country) becomes British crown colony 1961: Independence 1961: Independence 1967: Military coup, and move towards repressive one-party rule 1967: Military coup, and move towards repressive one-party rule Corruption and poor governance Services for citizens decline Exclusion and poverty (including youth) Diamond trade run for benefit of elites 1989: War starts in neighbouring Liberia 1989: War starts in neighbouring Liberia 1991: War starts in Sierra Leone with RUF incursion from Liberia 1991: War starts in Sierra Leone with RUF incursion from Liberia Outside actors: ECOMOG peacekeepers, private military contractors, and UK intervention (2000) to contain RUF 1999 July: Lome peace agreement signed with RUF 1999 July: Lome peace agreement signed with RUF 2002: War declared over 2002: War declared over

14. 14 Sierra Leone Truth and Reconciliation Commission “[Y]ears of bad governance, endemic corruption and the denial of basic human rights that created the deplorable conditions that made conflict inevitable. Successive regimes became increasingly impervious to the wishes and needs of the majority…. Institutional collapse reduced the vast majority of people into a state of deprivation. Government accountability was non-existent. Political expression and dissent had been crushed. Democracy and the rule of law were dead. By 1991, Sierra Leone was a deeply divided society and full of the potential for violence. It required only the slightest spark for this violence to be ignited. “[Y]ears of bad governance, endemic corruption and the denial of basic human rights that created the deplorable conditions that made conflict inevitable. Successive regimes became increasingly impervious to the wishes and needs of the majority…. Institutional collapse reduced the vast majority of people into a state of deprivation. Government accountability was non-existent. Political expression and dissent had been crushed. Democracy and the rule of law were dead. By 1991, Sierra Leone was a deeply divided society and full of the potential for violence. It required only the slightest spark for this violence to be ignited. TRC Sierra Leone, 2004, Witness to the Truth: Report of the Sierra Leone Truth and Reconciliation Commission, Volume 1, p 10. TRC Sierra Leone, 2004, Witness to the Truth: Report of the Sierra Leone Truth and Reconciliation Commission, Volume 1, p 10. http://www.sierra-leone.org/Other-Conflict/TRCVolume1.pdf http://www.sierra-leone.org/Other-Conflict/TRCVolume1.pdf

15. 1515 Participation: What is it? Chambers (1985, 1997) Chambers (1985, 1997) Concept still evolving, and is not uncontested Concept still evolving, and is not uncontested Genuine involvement of beneficiaries in all stages of the programme cycle: Genuine involvement of beneficiaries in all stages of the programme cycle: Deciding on needs Deciding on needs Planning interventions Planning interventions Implementing them Implementing them Monitoring Monitoring Evaluating the programme Evaluating the programme In reality, most work has been done on the later stages (M & E) In reality, most work has been done on the later stages (M & E) Usually based in more stable communities than post-conflict environments Usually based in more stable communities than post-conflict environments

16. 1616 “Ladder of participation” adapted from Pretty (1995) Self-mobilization People take initiatives independently of outsiders’ involvement. Interactive participation Joint analysis, action plans and decisions on resources, with strengthening of local institutions. Functional participation People implement (esp to reduce costs) and make smaller decisions. Participation for material incentives People contribute land, labour, in return for benefits. Participation by consultation Consultation, but decision-making is not shared. Passive participation People are told what has been decided Manipulative participation A pretence

17. 1717 Participation: how it might help Enhancing the sense of ownership at national and community level Enhancing the sense of ownership at national and community level Addressing social capital Addressing social capital Dealing with perceptions that those with guns are being rewarded Dealing with perceptions that those with guns are being rewarded More relevant services for all, including marginalized groups such as children, women, and the disabled More relevant services for all, including marginalized groups such as children, women, and the disabled Promoting reconciliation and acceptance of ex- combatants, where the whole community can see that it benefits Promoting reconciliation and acceptance of ex- combatants, where the whole community can see that it benefits Building long term national capacity Building long term national capacity

18. 18 Research methods Semi-structured interviews with a range of stakeholders Semi-structured interviews with a range of stakeholders Questionnaire for ex-combatants (n=98+32) Questionnaire for ex-combatants (n=98+32) Focus group discussions of ex-combatants (11) Focus group discussions of ex-combatants (11) Rural, semi-urban, and urban settings Rural, semi-urban, and urban settings

19. 1919 Key themes from Focus Groups Life is very hard (economically) Life is very hard (economically) Problems with quality and duration of training Problems with quality and duration of training No jobs result, even if the training is completed No jobs result, even if the training is completed Inaccurate information re the DDR programme Inaccurate information re the DDR programme Broken promises Broken promises Little input to decisions on the programme, apart from training/education options Little input to decisions on the programme, apart from training/education options Missing or misappropriated benefits Missing or misappropriated benefits Corruption and cheating Corruption and cheating Lack of confidence in the programme Lack of confidence in the programme

20. 20

21. 21 “Nothing of what they promised, did they give us.” “Nothing of what they promised, did they give us.” “The problem lies with those who promised things to us but did not fulfil. Benefits were expected which we would have used to ensure support for our families, and these were not provided. That is why my kids are all in the streets, so you can see that my condition is terrible, I swear to God.” “The problem lies with those who promised things to us but did not fulfil. Benefits were expected which we would have used to ensure support for our families, and these were not provided. That is why my kids are all in the streets, so you can see that my condition is terrible, I swear to God.” “So really the disarmament process did not go down well [with us], because they cheated us: what was meant for us was not given to us.” “So really the disarmament process did not go down well [with us], because they cheated us: what was meant for us was not given to us.” - Three participants, Focus Group A, Bo, Sierra Leone Focus group comments

22. 2222 Survey of ex-combatants in Sierra Leone (Sept 2008) Q: “If you were running a DDR programme now, what things would you do to help people feel included in the process, and have their views listened to?” They should learn to fulfil their promises. It's a serious issue: (we) agreed to disarm fully, but some have been abandoned. They should learn to fulfil their promises. It's a serious issue: (we) agreed to disarm fully, but some have been abandoned. I would be open with them and give them the opportunity to express their thoughts I would be open with them and give them the opportunity to express their thoughts I would try to know what they want I would try to know what they want Try to encourage people to forget about the past and become a new person in society Try to encourage people to forget about the past and become a new person in society I will help the real people and not bribe I will help the real people and not bribe

23. 2323 Q: “What would you avoid doing?” Theft Theft Building up false hopes Building up false hopes Cheating Cheating Deceit Deceit Corruption Corruption Marginalising and duping the target group Marginalising and duping the target group Making bogus promises Making bogus promises Survey of ex-combatants in Sierra Leone (Sept 2008)

24. 2424 Why there are problems Short time frame for starting DDR programmes Short time frame for starting DDR programmes Many different actors, with varying agendas, capacities, and organisational cultures. Many different actors, with varying agendas, capacities, and organisational cultures. Funding from disparate donors, who themselves have a variety of perspectives. Funding from disparate donors, who themselves have a variety of perspectives. Lack of capacity and social capital in post-war environment. Lack of capacity and social capital in post-war environment. Early stages (disarmament) do not lend themselves to consultation. Early stages (disarmament) do not lend themselves to consultation. Engagement with commanders may be necessary but is problematic. Engagement with commanders may be necessary but is problematic.

25. 2525 Is participation possible in DDR? Ladder of participation is a useful tool for analysing reintegration: Ladder of participation is a useful tool for analysing reintegration: Power Power Agency Agency Social capital Social capital Lower rungs of ladder are reached – at times Lower rungs of ladder are reached – at times Many obstacles, especially time constraints Many obstacles, especially time constraints Children’s programmes showed more participation Children’s programmes showed more participation Matter of degree (who, when, and how) Matter of degree (who, when, and how) More opportunities in later stages More opportunities in later stages It can point to greater ownership, sustainability, and better outcomes It can point to greater ownership, sustainability, and better outcomes