Overview: Life’s Operating Instructions

Overview: Life’s Operating Instructions
In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick introduced an elegant double-helical model for the structure of deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA DNA, the substance of inheritance, is the most celebrated molecule of our time Hereditary information is encoded in DNA and reproduced in all cells of the body This DNA program directs the development of biochemical, anatomical, physiological, and (to some extent) behavioral traits Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig. 16-1 Figure 16.1 How was the structure of DNA determined?

Evidence That DNA Can Transform Bacteria
The discovery of the genetic role of DNA began with research by Frederick Griffith in 1928 Griffith worked with two strains of a bacterium, one pathogenic and one harmless Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

When he mixed heat-killed remains of the pathogenic strain with living cells of the harmless strain, some living cells became pathogenic He called this phenomenon transformation, now defined as a change in genotype and phenotype due to assimilation of foreign DNA Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

EXPERIMENT RESULTS Mixture of heat-killed S cells and living R cells
Fig. 16-2 Mixture of heat-killed S cells and living R cells EXPERIMENT Living S cells (control) Living R cells (control) Heat-killed S cells (control) RESULTS Figure 16.2 Can a genetic trait be transferred between different bacterial strains? Mouse dies Mouse healthy Mouse healthy Mouse dies Living S cells

In 1944, Oswald Avery, Maclyn McCarty, and Colin MacLeod announced that the transforming substance was DNA Their conclusion was based on experimental evidence that only DNA worked in transforming harmless bacteria into pathogenic bacteria Many biologists remained skeptical, mainly because little was known about DNA Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Evidence That Viral DNA Can Program Cells
More evidence for DNA as the genetic material came from studies of viruses that infect bacteria Such viruses, called bacteriophages (or phages), are widely used in molecular genetics research Animation: Phage T2 Reproductive Cycle Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Phage head Tail sheath Tail fiber DNA 100 nm Bacterial cell Fig. 16-3
Figure 16.3 Viruses infecting a bacterial cell DNA 100 nm Bacterial cell

Animation: Hershery-Chase Experiment
In 1952, Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase performed experiments showing that DNA is the genetic material of a phage known as T2 To determine the source of genetic material in the phage, they designed an experiment showing that only one of the two components of T2 (DNA or protein) enters an E. coli cell during infection They concluded that the injected DNA of the phage provides the genetic information Animation: Hershery-Chase Experiment Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

EXPERIMENT Radioactive protein Phage Bacterial cell DNA
Fig EXPERIMENT Radioactive protein Phage Bacterial cell Batch 1: radioactive sulfur (35S) DNA Radioactive DNA Figure 16.4 Is protein or DNA the genetic material of phage T2? Batch 2: radioactive phosphorus (32P)

EXPERIMENT Empty protein shell Radioactive protein Phage
Fig EXPERIMENT Empty protein shell Radioactive protein Phage Bacterial cell Batch 1: radioactive sulfur (35S) DNA Phage DNA Radioactive DNA Figure 16.4 Is protein or DNA the genetic material of phage T2? Batch 2: radioactive phosphorus (32P)

EXPERIMENT Empty protein shell Radioactivity (phage protein) in liquid
Fig EXPERIMENT Empty protein shell Radioactivity (phage protein) in liquid Radioactive protein Phage Bacterial cell Batch 1: radioactive sulfur (35S) DNA Phage DNA Centrifuge Radioactive DNA Pellet (bacterial cells and contents) Figure 16.4 Is protein or DNA the genetic material of phage T2? Batch 2: radioactive phosphorus (32P) Centrifuge Radioactivity (phage DNA) in pellet Pellet

Sugar–phosphate backbone 5 end Sugar (deoxyribose) 3 end
Fig. 16-5 Sugar–phosphate backbone  end Nitrogenous bases Thymine (T) Adenine (A) Figure 16.5 The structure of a DNA strand Cytosine (C) Phosphate DNA nucleotide Sugar (deoxyribose)  end Guanine (G)

Building a Structural Model of DNA: Scientific Inquiry
After most biologists became convinced that DNA was the genetic material, the challenge was to determine how its structure accounts for its role Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin were using a technique called X-ray crystallography to study molecular structure Franklin produced a picture of the DNA molecule using this technique Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

(b) Franklin’s X-ray diffraction photograph of DNA
Fig. 16-6 Figure 16.6 Rosalind Franklin and her X-ray diffraction photo of DNA (a) Rosalind Franklin (b) Franklin’s X-ray diffraction photograph of DNA

Animation: DNA Double Helix
Franklin’s X-ray crystallographic images of DNA enabled Watson to deduce that DNA was helical The X-ray images also enabled Watson to deduce the width of the helix and the spacing of the nitrogenous bases The width suggested that the DNA molecule was made up of two strands, forming a double helix Animation: DNA Double Helix Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

5 end Hydrogen bond 3 end 1 nm 3.4 nm 3 end 0.34 nm 5 end
Fig. 16-7 5 end Hydrogen bond 3 end 1 nm 3.4 nm Figure 16.7 The double helix For the Cell Biology Video Stick Model of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid), go to Animation and Video Files. For the Cell Biology Video Surface Model of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid), go to Animation and Video Files. 3 end 0.34 nm 5 end (a) Key features of DNA structure (b) Partial chemical structure (c) Space-filling model

5 end Hydrogen bond 3 end 1 nm 3.4 nm 3 end 0.34 nm 5 end
Fig. 16-7a 5 end Hydrogen bond 3 end 1 nm 3.4 nm Figure 16.7 The double helix 3 end 0.34 nm 5 end (a) Key features of DNA structure (b) Partial chemical structure

Watson and Crick reasoned that the pairing was more specific, dictated by the base structures
They determined that adenine (A) paired only with thymine (T), and guanine (G) paired only with cytosine (C) The Watson-Crick model explains Chargaff’s rules: in any organism the amount of A = T, and the amount of G = C Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Adenine (A) Thymine (T) Guanine (G) Cytosine (C) Fig. 16-8
Figure 16.8 Base pairing in DNA Guanine (G) Cytosine (C)

The Basic Principle: Base Pairing to a Template Strand
Since the two strands of DNA are complementary, each strand acts as a template for building a new strand in replication In DNA replication, the parent molecule unwinds, and two new daughter strands are built based on base-pairing rules Animation: DNA Replication Overview Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

A T C G T A A T G C (a) Parent molecule Fig. 16-9-1
Figure 16.9 A model for DNA replication: the basic concept

(b) Separation of strands
Fig A T A T C G C G T A T A A T A T G C G C (a) Parent molecule (b) Separation of strands Figure 16.9 A model for DNA replication: the basic concept

(b) Separation of strands
Fig A T A T A T A T C G C G C G C G T A T A T A T A A T A T A T A T G C G C G C G C (a) Parent molecule (b) Separation of strands (c) “Daughter” DNA molecules, each consisting of one parental strand and one new strand Figure 16.9 A model for DNA replication: the basic concept

Watson and Crick’s semiconservative model of replication predicts that when a double helix replicates, each daughter molecule will have one old strand (derived or “conserved” from the parent molecule) and one newly made strand Competing models were the conservative model (the two parent strands rejoin) and the dispersive model (each strand is a mix of old and new) Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

(a) Conservative model
Fig First replication Second replication Parent cell (a) Conservative model (b) Semiconserva- tive model Figure Three alternative models of DNA replication (c) Dispersive model

Experiments by Matthew Meselson and Franklin Stahl supported the semiconservative model
They labeled the nucleotides of the old strands with a heavy isotope of nitrogen, while any new nucleotides were labeled with a lighter isotope Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

3 Fig. 16-11 EXPERIMENT 1 Bacteria cultured in medium containing 15N 2
Bacteria transferred to medium containing 14N RESULTS 3 DNA sample centrifuged after 20 min (after first application) 4 DNA sample centrifuged after 40 min (after second replication) Less dense More dense CONCLUSION First replication Second replication Conservative model Figure Does DNA replication follow the conservative, semiconservative, or dispersive model? Semiconservative model Dispersive model

DNA Replication: A Closer Look
The copying of DNA is remarkable in its speed and accuracy More than a dozen enzymes and other proteins participate in DNA replication Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Animation: Origins of Replication
Getting Started Replication begins at special sites called origins of replication, where the two DNA strands are separated, opening up a replication “bubble” A eukaryotic chromosome may have hundreds or even thousands of origins of replication Replication proceeds in both directions from each origin, until the entire molecule is copied Animation: Origins of Replication Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig Origin of replication Parental (template) strand Daughter (new) strand Replication fork Double- stranded DNA molecule Replication bubble 0.5 µm Two daughter DNA molecules (a) Origins of replication in E. coli Origin of replication Double-stranded DNA molecule Parental (template) strand Daughter (new) strand Figure Origins of replication in E. coli and eukaryotes 0.25 µm Bubble Replication fork Two daughter DNA molecules (b) Origins of replication in eukaryotes

At the end of each replication bubble is a replication fork, a Y-shaped region where new DNA strands are elongating Helicases are enzymes that untwist the double helix at the replication forks Single-strand binding protein binds to and stabilizes single-stranded DNA until it can be used as a template Topoisomerase corrects “overwinding” ahead of replication forks by breaking, swiveling, and rejoining DNA strands Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Single-strand binding proteins
Fig Primase Single-strand binding proteins 3 Topoisomerase 5 3 RNA primer Figure Some of the proteins involved in the initiation of DNA replication 5 5 3 Helicase

The initial nucleotide strand is a short RNA primer
DNA polymerases cannot initiate synthesis of a polynucleotide; they can only add nucleotides to the 3 end The initial nucleotide strand is a short RNA primer Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

An enzyme called primase can start an RNA chain from scratch and adds RNA nucleotides one at a time using the parental DNA as a template The primer is short (5–10 nucleotides long), and the 3 end serves as the starting point for the new DNA strand Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Synthesizing a New DNA Strand
Enzymes called DNA polymerases catalyze the elongation of new DNA at a replication fork Most DNA polymerases require a primer and a DNA template strand The rate of elongation is about 500 nucleotides per second in bacteria and 50 per second in human cells Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Each nucleotide that is added to a growing DNA strand is a nucleoside triphosphate
dATP supplies adenine to DNA and is similar to the ATP of energy metabolism The difference is in their sugars: dATP has deoxyribose while ATP has ribose As each monomer of dATP joins the DNA strand, it loses two phosphate groups as a molecule of pyrophosphate Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Nucleoside triphosphate
Fig New strand 5 end Template strand 3 end 5 end 3 end Sugar A T A T Base Phosphate C G C G G C G C DNA polymerase 3 end A T A Figure Incorporation of a nucleotide into a DNA strand T 3 end C Pyrophosphate C Nucleoside triphosphate 5 end 5 end

Antiparallel Elongation
The antiparallel structure of the double helix (two strands oriented in opposite directions) affects replication DNA polymerases add nucleotides only to the free 3end of a growing strand; therefore, a new DNA strand can elongate only in the 5 to 3direction Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Animation: Leading Strand
Along one template strand of DNA, the DNA polymerase synthesizes a leading strand continuously, moving toward the replication fork Animation: Leading Strand Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Overall directions of replication
Fig Overview Origin of replication Leading strand Lagging strand Primer Lagging strand Leading strand Overall directions of replication Origin of replication 3 5 RNA primer 5 “Sliding clamp” 3 5 DNA poll III Parental DNA Figure Synthesis of the leading strand during DNA replication 3 5 5 3 5

Fig a Overview Origin of replication Leading strand Lagging strand Primer Lagging strand Leading strand Figure Synthesis of the leading strand during DNA replication Overall directions of replication

Origin of replication 3 5 RNA primer 5 “Sliding clamp” 3 5
Fig b Origin of replication 3 5 RNA primer 5 “Sliding clamp” 3 5 DNA pol III Parental DNA 3 5 Figure Synthesis of the leading strand during DNA replication 5 3 5

Animation: Lagging Strand
To elongate the other new strand, called the lagging strand, DNA polymerase must work in the direction away from the replication fork The lagging strand is synthesized as a series of segments called Okazaki fragments, which are joined together by DNA ligase Animation: Lagging Strand Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig Overview Origin of replication Leading strand Lagging strand Lagging strand 2 1 Leading strand Overall directions of replication 3 5 5 3 Template strand 3 RNA primer 3 5 1 5 Okazaki fragment 3 5 3 1 5 5 3 3 Figure 16.6 Synthesis of the lagging strand 2 1 5 3 5 3 5 2 1 5 3 3 1 5 2 Overall direction of replication

Fig a Overview Origin of replication Leading strand Lagging strand Lagging strand 2 1 Leading strand Figure 16.6 Synthesis of the lagging strand Overall directions of replication

Figure 16.6 Synthesis of the lagging strand
Fig b1 3 5 5 3 Template strand Figure 16.6 Synthesis of the lagging strand

Fig b2 3 5 5 3 Template strand 3 5 RNA primer 3 1 5 Figure 16.6 Synthesis of the lagging strand

Fig b3 3 5 5 3 Template strand 3 5 RNA primer 3 1 5 3 Okazaki fragment 5 3 1 5 Figure 16.6 Synthesis of the lagging strand

Fig b4 3 5 5 3 Template strand 3 5 RNA primer 3 1 5 3 Okazaki fragment 5 3 5 1 3 5 3 2 1 5 Figure 16.6 Synthesis of the lagging strand

Fig b5 3 5 5 3 Template strand 3 5 RNA primer 3 1 5 3 Okazaki fragment 5 3 5 1 3 5 3 2 1 5 5 3 Figure 16.6 Synthesis of the lagging strand 3 5 2 1

Fig b6 3 5 5 3 Template strand 3 5 RNA primer 3 1 5 3 Okazaki fragment 5 3 5 1 3 5 3 2 1 5 5 3 Figure 16.6 Synthesis of the lagging strand 3 5 2 1 5 3 3 1 5 2 Overall direction of replication

Table 16-1

Single-strand binding protein Overall directions of replication
Fig Overview Origin of replication Leading strand Lagging strand Leading strand Lagging strand Single-strand binding protein Overall directions of replication Helicase Leading strand 5 DNA pol III 3 3 Primer Primase 5 Parental DNA 3 Figure A summary of bacterial DNA replication DNA pol III Lagging strand 5 DNA pol I DNA ligase 4 3 5 3 2 1 3 5

Proofreading and Repairing DNA
DNA polymerases proofread newly made DNA, replacing any incorrect nucleotides In mismatch repair of DNA, repair enzymes correct errors in base pairing DNA can be damaged by chemicals, radioactive emissions, X-rays, UV light, and certain molecules (in cigarette smoke for example) In nucleotide excision repair, a nuclease cuts out and replaces damaged stretches of DNA Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Nuclease DNA polymerase DNA ligase Fig. 16-18
Figure Nucleotide excision repair of DNA damage DNA ligase

Replicating the Ends of DNA Molecules
Limitations of DNA polymerase create problems for the linear DNA of eukaryotic chromosomes The usual replication machinery provides no way to complete the 5 ends, so repeated rounds of replication produce shorter DNA molecules Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Figure 16.19 Shortening of the ends of linear DNA molecules
5 Ends of parental DNA strands Leading strand Lagging strand 3 Last fragment Previous fragment RNA primer Lagging strand 5 3 Parental strand Removal of primers and replacement with DNA where a 3 end is available 5 3 Second round of replication Figure Shortening of the ends of linear DNA molecules 5 New leading strand 3 New lagging strand 5 3 Further rounds of replication Shorter and shorter daughter molecules

Eukaryotic chromosomal DNA molecules have at their ends nucleotide sequences called telomeres
Telomeres do not prevent the shortening of DNA molecules, but they do postpone the erosion of genes near the ends of DNA molecules It has been proposed that the shortening of telomeres is connected to aging Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

If chromosomes of germ cells became shorter in every cell cycle, essential genes would eventually be missing from the gametes they produce An enzyme called telomerase catalyzes the lengthening of telomeres in germ cells Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

The shortening of telomeres might protect cells from cancerous growth by limiting the number of cell divisions There is evidence of telomerase activity in cancer cells, which may allow cancer cells to persist Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Animation: DNA Packing
Chromatin is a complex of DNA and protein, and is found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells Histones are proteins that are responsible for the first level of DNA packing in chromatin For the Cell Biology Video Cartoon and Stick Model of a Nucleosomal Particle, go to Animation and Video Files. Animation: DNA Packing Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Nucleosomes, or “beads on a string” (10-nm fiber)
Fig a Nucleosome (10 nm in diameter) DNA double helix (2 nm in diameter) H1 Histone tail Histones Figure 16.21a Chromatin packing in a eukaryotic chromosome DNA, the double helix Histones Nucleosomes, or “beads on a string” (10-nm fiber)

Loosely packed chromatin is called euchromatin
Most chromatin is loosely packed in the nucleus during interphase and condenses prior to mitosis Loosely packed chromatin is called euchromatin During interphase a few regions of chromatin (centromeres and telomeres) are highly condensed into heterochromatin Dense packing of the heterochromatin makes it difficult for the cell to express genetic information coded in these regions Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

DNA pol III synthesizes leading strand continuously
Fig. 16-UN3 DNA pol III synthesizes leading strand continuously 3 5 Parental DNA DNA pol III starts DNA synthesis at 3 end of primer, continues in 5  3 direction 5 3 5 Lagging strand synthesized in short Okazaki fragments, later joined by DNA ligase Primase synthesizes a short RNA primer 3 5

You should now be able to:
Describe the contributions of the following people: Griffith; Avery, McCary, and MacLeod; Hershey and Chase; Chargaff; Watson and Crick; Franklin; Meselson and Stahl Describe the structure of DNA Describe the process of DNA replication; include the following terms: antiparallel structure, DNA polymerase, leading strand, lagging strand, Okazaki fragments, DNA ligase, primer, primase, helicase, topoisomerase, single-strand binding proteins Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

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