1. Palms of the Tropics Dates Coconuts Oil palm Snake fruit

2. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Relative Production of Palm Crops FAOSTAT, 2003

3. Dates Palmae Phoenix dactylifera

4. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Vegetative Structure - Palms zNo cambium only growing point yGrowing condition record by sections not annual rings ySingle trunk without branches x50-120’ (up to 36.5m) tall zLeaves- Date Palm y10-20’ long yLife span of 3-7 years zRoots surround leaf base

5. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Fruiting zDioecious zPollinators - insects and wind zInflorescence - branched spadix yMany long spikes yAttached to fleshy axis yEnclosed in hard tough spathe xBurst open when flowers mature yLarge inflorescence - 6,000 to 10,000 flowers

6. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Origin of the Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera) Zeven and de Wet, 1982 Probably originated in Persia Gulf region and spread This is one of the oldest cultivated plants

7. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Origin zPersian Gulf region yEspecially between Nile and Euphrates rivers y Not known in wild yMovement xWest to Egypt and North Africa xEast to Western India zOne of oldest cultivated plants y8,000 years ago in south India y4,000 BC in Arabia yIraq (Ur) 3000 BC

8. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Adaptation Hot arid climate with ample subsurface moisture zGrows from 15° to 35° N latitude yFull sun yTemperature xDormant can take 20F (-6.7 C) xCommercial growth Mean daily maximum of 90F (32.2C)

9. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Adaptation Hot arid climate with ample subsurface moisture yMoisture xDrought tolerant xHigh water requirement for maximum yield 4-6 acre feet per year Since lose 20%, apply 7.5 acre feet xRoots can withstand low O 2 Root structure permits O 2 movement from surface xNo rain during ripening (checking = cracking) yTolerant of high levels of xAlkali xSalt

10. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University World Date Production FAOSTAT, 2003 144% increase since 1980

11. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University World Date Yield FAOSTAT, 2003 Yield has decreased since 1962

12. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Date Production FAOSTAT, 2003

13. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University World Date Production FAOSTAT, 2003

14. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Propagation zSeedlings y Variable - 50% female zMust propagate from offshoots yDate palm produce 2 offshoots per year for 10-15 years yHarvest when 3-5 years old x40 - 75 lbs (18-34 kg) xSledge hammer and chisel

15. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Planting zDensity y120/ha yMay lose up to 25% of planted offshoots y1 male plant for 50 female plants zPrecocity yBlooms within 3 years yFirst commercial crop in 5-6 years Young date palm orchard

16. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Planting zPrecocity yFull production 8-10 to 60 years yAfter 60-80 years productivity decreases zTree growth y1-1.5’ (30-45 cm) per year yBy 15-20 years old is 20’ tall

17. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Cultivars 1000s of cultivars in the world z‘Zahdi’ (Semi-dry) xLeading cv in Iraq xOldest known cultivar xVery popular in the mideast z‘Deglet Noor’ (Semi-dry) xIntroduced from Tunisia to California in 1900 x75% of California production zMedjool (Soft) xFrom Morocco to California in 1927 xDeluxe date grown in California and Arizona zVary in ripening time (3 months) so generally several varieties are grown

18. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Pollination done by hand zMinimize number of male plants  1 male  50 female trees zEnsure good set zMethods yTraditional - put  strands on  flower yPollen can be stored and dusted on zMetaxenia - male variety important yPollen source affects maturity, seed shape, and seed size

19. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Hand Pollination Female inflorescence Traditionally done for thousands of years

20. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Hand Pollination Male inflorescence 2-3 pieces tied to distal side of female inflorescence

21. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Fruit Development About 29 weeks for development Low crop Heavy crop

22. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Fruit development 29 weeks for fruit development zChimri - 1 st 17 weeks yGreen, hard, bitter, 80% moisture, 50% sugars zKhalal - weeks 18 to 23 yFull size, yellow, orange or red color y% sugars increasing, mainly sucrose

23. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Fruit development 29 weeks for fruit development zRutab - weeks 24 to 27 yHalf ripe, soft apex and change to light brown zTamar - weeks 28 and 29 yHazel to dark brown yWrinkled yLow respiration yCells disorganized

24. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Fruit is thinned zTo avoid alternate bearing yOne year with heavy crop ySecond year with small crop zThinning female flowers yCommon to leave 12 bunches per tree yEach bunch with x30 strands each with 30 fruit

25. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Bearing Date Orchard

26. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Harvesting Dates

27. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Harvest Stages zHarvest early if cv non-astringent. yEaten in Khalal stage (firm - yellow) yBoiled and dried zBegin to pick soft and semidry types in Rutab stage zDry dates are picked in Tamar stage

28. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Harvesting Techniques zWorker climbs tree zKhalal cut bunch and lower with rope zFresh market fruit yBegin when lower half in Rutab stage x2-3 pickings then cut raceme yTamar stage xIf uneven ripening, shake ripe onto mat xMay pick 3-8 times xIf wait until fully ripe cut bunch and drop on mat

29. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University In climates where high humidity is possible during harvest zHarvest early to avoid checking ySemi dry varieties y6 days early zRipened artificially y80 o - 95 o F heated room to complete ripening

30. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Processing zDry or cold storage yFull mature store for 5-6 months yUnder ripe store for 10 - 18 months yStore years in frozen state

31. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Nutritional content High energy food with good levels of Fe and K zContent yMoisture7 - 26% yProtein2 - 4% (low) yFat0.1 - 1.2% (low) ySugar70 - 80 % xFull ripe soft date - glucose & fructose xSemi-dry - half sucrose zTraditionally eaten with milk products

32. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Other products zCull dates are used for feed zSeeds yFeed, charcoal, jewelry zLeaves, petioles, inflorescences yWide range of products xWoven into mats, baskets, crates, fans xCellulose pulp, rope, hats, roofing, brooms zTap tree for sweet sap yPalm sugar, molasses, alcoholic drinks yOther palms also tapped

33. Tropical Oil Seed Crops Coconut African Oil Palm

34. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Vegetable Oil Production in 1961-1963

35. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Vegetable Oil Production in 1979-1981

36. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Vegetable Oil Production in 2000-2002

37. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Vegetable Oil Production in 1962, 1980, and 2001

38. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Oil quality per 100 gm USDA National Nutrient Database

39. Coconut Palmae Cocos nucifera Picture from IPBGR web site

40. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Picture from IPBGR web site Coconut Cocos nucifera zOne of 10 most useful trees in the world z50 million people make living from the coconut tree z96% world’s coconut crop on small plots (<4 ha)

41. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Coconut tree is a monocot zTall yUp to 100’ (35 m) yNo branches, only one growing point zCrown of 20-30 pinnate leaves yLeaves compound - “feather like” y0.6 to 1 m long yTake 1.5 years to reach full size yLive more than 2 years

42. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Flowering zMonoecious and dichogamous zInflorescence (2-4’ long) yUp to 8,000 small (1-2 mm)  flowers y1-30  flowers near base xNectar attract bees and other insects yOne inflorescence produced from leaf axil per month zFlowers in 5-8 years (dwarf in 3-4 years)

43. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Dichogamy zProtandrous thus cross-pollinated yMale flowers 2 weeks before the female yPollen comes from another plant zPollination yBees appear to be main pollinator yOther insects: ants, wasps, earwigs, flies ySome wind pollination

44. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Fruit zDevelops 12 crops at same time yMaturation takes 1 year yOne tree can mature 100 nuts/year yDrops 65 - 70% of immature fruit zGrowth stages y1) Rapid growth of husk y2) Enlargement of cavity & filling with liquid endosperm y3) Solid endosperm in 5 - 6 mos

45. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Longitundinal Section of Coconut Fruit Pedicel attachment point Exocarp Mesocarp (fibrous) Endocarp (shell) Embryo Endosperm (coconut meat) Eye of coconut Coconut water (milk)

46. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Origin and Dispersal of Coconut ( Cocos nucifera ) Whitehead, 1979 15th Century

47. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Origin and Dispersal of Coconut zNo truly wild coconuts are known ySpread by floating in oceans and human movements zSoutheast Asia ySpread east to Pacific islands and Americas ySpread west to India and East Africa zAmericas yFirst arrived on Pacific shores from Pacific Islands yIn 15th century or later to Atlantic shores from West Africa

48. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Adaptation zLowland wet tropics yUp to 900 m y27 - 35 o C yVery small diurnal variation yMinimum rainfall x1250 mm (52”) zHigh sunlight

49. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Adaptation zCharacteristic of coastal sands yNeed source of fresh water yTolerant of salt spray yTolerant of high winds zHigh winds make unprofitable yUse windbreaks

50. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University World Coconut Production FAOSTAT, 2003 56% increase since 1980

51. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University World Coconut Yield FAOSTAT, 2003 Yield unchanged since 1962

52. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Coconut Production FAOSTAT, 2003

53. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University World Coconut Production FAOSTAT, 2003

54. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Propagation zExclusively by seed zSelect best trees to use as seed source yUniform growth, straight trunk yClosely spaced leaf scars yDense crown yShort, capable of holding heavy fruit crop y10 year production record

55. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Seed Bed zUse fully mature nuts ySoak in water for 1 - 2 wks yCut exocarp & mesocarp distal end zPlant in a nursery y20 - 30 cm apart in rows 20 cm apart yNuts horizontal with eye up

56. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Placement of Coconut for Planting Cut end of coconut Pedicel attachment point Shoot appears within 16 weeks of planting

57. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Nursery care zRogue out seedlings ySlow germination ySlow growth z25 - 30 weeks in the nursery y3-4 leaf stage yPlanted into permanent orchard

58. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Planting zDensity y9- 10 m square or triangualr system y70-150 trees per ha zPrecocity yFirst commercial harvest, 5-9 years yFull production after 12-13 years yProductive for 60 years

59. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Harvesting & Processing zHarvesting yClimb trees - 25 palms per day yPoles - 250 palms per day yAllow to fall and pick up regularly zHarvest time yImmature for “milk” y1 month before ripe for coir yMature for copra/oil

60. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Thousands of uses of the coconut Food Oil Feed Fiber Fuel Wood

61. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Copra Production zCoconuts split and dried yDried endosperm (meat) = copra y6% moisture and 70% oil yVarious extraction procedures yResulting “cake” used for feed zUses of oil ySoaps, shampoos, toothpaste, ice cream yLubricants, paints, plastics z

62. Palm Oil Palmae Elaeis guineensis

63. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Vegetative Structure zTall, erect palm without branching y8.3-35 m yNo offshoots like coconut zLeaves y4 to 10’ (1.3 to 2.3 m) long yHooked spines on petioles y4-5 yr trees may produce 30 leaves/yr y10 th yr produce 20 leaves/year

64. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Tree Height zMay become 100’ (35m) tall yHarvest? zAnswer - cut down on 20 th yr yTo facilitate harvest

65. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Flowers zMonoecious yMale and female inflorescences x1 male to 120 female inflorescences xPacked in leaf axils yComplete dichogamy common xCross pollination is usual yPollen airborne ~ 100’ xCan store dessicated for 10 weeks yPistil receptive 3 days

66. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Oil Palm Flowers - leaf axil From The Oil Palm, FAO, 1970 Male inflorescence Female inflorescence

67. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Female flowers zGreen color at pollination yParts exposed to sun - purple yLast 6 wks - yellow

68. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University African Oil Palm fruit is a Drupe Matures 6 months after pollination zMesocarp yPulp, ivory white yRich in oil zEndocarp yShell zKernel ySeed yRich in oil From The Oil Palm, FAO, 1970

69. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University African Oil Palm fruit is a Drupe zFruit turn black when ripe with red at base zInflorescences from leaf bases zMatures 6 mos after pollination zHarvest throughout the year zClusters weigh 20 - 100 lbs. z

70. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Origin of Oil Palm (Elaeis guieensis) Zeven and de Wet, 1982 Mauritius 1848 to Java and Sumatra

71. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Origin of African Oil Palm zRainforest/savanna transition zone of West Africa y300 km wide coastal belt from Liberia to Angola yMaintained as semi wild populations yUsed by local populations for centuries yMajor source of vitamin A zMid 1800s was moved to Sumatra and Java z1917 was established in Malaysia

72. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Adaptation zTransition zone between rain forest and savanna yRiverine forests yFresh water swamps zTemperature yMean monthly maximum - 30-32C yMean monthly minimum - 21-24C yNo growth < 15C zMoisture

73. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Adaptation zMoisture yHigh rain fall x1,780 to 2,280 mm yTolerate xTemporary flooding xFluctuating water table zSoil yTolerate wide range of soils

74. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University World Oil Palm Production FAOSTAT, 2003 333% increase since 1980

75. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University World Oil Palm Yield FAOSTAT, 2003 320% increase since 1962 174% increase since 1980

76. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Oil Palm Production FAOSTAT, 2003

77. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University World Oil Palm Production FAOSTAT, 2003

78. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Propagation zExclusively by seed yParents selected according to seedling performance zGermination yBest at high temperatures yGerminate in 90 days yGrow in container for 4-5 months yGrow in nursery for 12 months From The Oil Palm, FAO, 1970

79. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Propagation zTransplantation y16-18 months old y15 leaves

80. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Planting zDensity y75-150 palms per hectare yCommon to intercrop the first several years zPrecocity yAfter 3-4 years begin to fruit

81. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Three Varietal Groups zDura, 2-8 mm endocarp yPulp, 35-55% yKernel, 7-20% zTenera, 0.5-3 mm endocarp yPulp, 60-95% yKernel, 3-15% z Pisifera, no shell yFruit frequently rot prematurely From The Oil Palm, FAO, 1970

82. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Ripe fruit turns black

83. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Harvesting zHarvest throughout the year yEvery 5 - 10 days look for ripe bunches yIf too early - less oil yIf over ripe - lower oil quality zHarvest bunch yFruit black with red base yCut off entire bunch (20-100 lbs) y100-150 bunches/man/day

84. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Harvest by bunch From The Oil Palm, FAO, 1970

85. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Harvesting - Yields zSemi wild y1.2 to 5 mt fruit/ha/yr zEstate in Africa y7.5 to 15 mt fruit/ha/yr zEstate in Sumatra/Malaysia y15 to 25 mt fruit/ha/yr

86. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University

87. Oil Extraction Percentage zMesocarp ySoft press, 8% yHydraulic press xDura, 15-18% xTenera, 20-22% zKernel x3.5 to 5%

88. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Palm Oil from Pericarp zAs mature the carbohydrates convert into oil yOil quality improves with maturity yLevel of free fatty acids increase with maturity xFree fatty acids have rancid flavor xAt full ripe FFA is < 0.3% x5% FFA is acceptable zHarvest every 5-10 days

89. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Processing zEnzyme inactivated with steam yPrevents FFA formation zPericarp crushed separated from nuts yPressed to separate oil zNuts dried from 25 to 12% moisture yCracked - separated from shells xDried to 8% moisture xShipped to processor who separate oil

90. Other palms Snake fruit or Salak Arecaceae Salacca zallaca

91. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Snake fruit in Thailand

92. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Salak palm zSmall cluster palm yNo stem or trunk ySprouts leaves from ground ySpines on fronds yUsually shorter than 5 m zWhen reach certain height yGrow by spreading on soil surface yForms suckers on side of palm

93. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Snake fruit in Thailand Spines on fronds

94. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Snake fruit in Thailand Grow by spreading on soil surface

95. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Snake fruit in Thailand Grows to about 5 m tall

96. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Dioecious plant zRequires cross pollination for good set yThis ensured by placing male inflorescence on female inflorescence zFruit develop in bunches yBagged to protect against rats and other pests

97. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Fruit zFormed in bunches from leaf axils zFruit - 6 months to mature yReddish brown, scaley skin yImmature fruit very acid - poor quality yFlesh of ripe fruit xFirm, white, fibrous xSweet-acid taste, crisp Strawberry, pineapple x1-3 seeds per fruit xRobust fruit, difficult to bruise xExcellent shipper xShelf life at 25C is one week

98. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Origin zIndigenous throughout Indo- Malaysian region

99. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Adaptation zTropical yHigh temperature and humidity yFrost sensitive ySun sensitive especially young plants yNeed continous supply of moisture zSoil ySandy clay soils high in organic matter yGood aeration and drainage

100. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Propagation zNormally done by seed yCleaned and soaked overnight yPlanted in sand yAfter 6-8 weeks planted into poly bags yNeed to shade to avoid sunburn zCan propagate by suckers as well

101. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Planting zDensity y3m x 6m y555 plants/ha yNeed temporary shade to establish xInitially 70-80%, after 1 year 40-50% xCan use banana or Grilicidia zPrecocity yBegin to fruit in 3-4 years

102. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Snake fruit in Thailand

103. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Harvesting zProduced at frequent intervals throughout year yPeak June-July and October-November zImportant not to pick immature because of high acidity yHarvest bunch zYield y10 mt/ha/year

104. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Snake fruit in Thailand

105. Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University Any Questions??