1. Chapter 10 Language and the Computer

2. 2 1. CAI, CAL & CALL CAI: computer-assisted instruction CAI: computer-assisted instruction CAL: computer-assisted learning CAL: computer-assisted learning CALL: computer-assisted language learning CALL: computer-assisted language learning Three phases of CALL: Three phases of CALL: Behavioristic CALL Behavioristic CALL Communicative CALL Communicative CALL Integrative CALL Integrative CALL

3. 3 1.1 Behavioristic CALL Conceived in the 1950s and Conceived in the 1950s and implemented in the 1960s and ’ 70s. Based on the then dominant behaviorist theories of learning--repetitive language drills (drill and practice). Based on the then dominant behaviorist theories of learning--repetitive language drills (drill and practice). The courseware is based on the model of computer as tutor, a vehicle for delivering instructional materials to the student. The courseware is based on the model of computer as tutor, a vehicle for delivering instructional materials to the student.

4. 4 The rationale Repeated exposure to the same material is beneficial or even essential to learning. Repeated exposure to the same material is beneficial or even essential to learning. A computer is ideal for carrying out repeated drills, since the machine does not get bored with presenting the same material and since it can provide immediate non-judgmental feedback. A computer is ideal for carrying out repeated drills, since the machine does not get bored with presenting the same material and since it can provide immediate non-judgmental feedback. A computer can present such material on an individualized basis, allowing students to proceed at their own pace and freeing up class time for other activities. A computer can present such material on an individualized basis, allowing students to proceed at their own pace and freeing up class time for other activities.

5. 5 Based on these notions, a number of CALL tutoring systems were developed for the mainframe computers which were used at that time. Based on these notions, a number of CALL tutoring systems were developed for the mainframe computers which were used at that time. The PLATO system: vocabulary drills, brief grammar explanations and drills, and translations tests at various intervals. The PLATO system: vocabulary drills, brief grammar explanations and drills, and translations tests at various intervals.

6. 6 In the late 1970s and early 1980s, behavioristic CALL was undermined by two important factors. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, behavioristic CALL was undermined by two important factors. First, behavioristic approaches to language learning had been rejected at both the theoretical and the pedagogical level. First, behavioristic approaches to language learning had been rejected at both the theoretical and the pedagogical level. Secondly, the introduction of the microcomputer allowed a whole new range of possibilities. The stage was set for a new phase of CALL. Secondly, the introduction of the microcomputer allowed a whole new range of possibilities. The stage was set for a new phase of CALL.

7. 7 1.2 Communicative CALL Based on the communicative approach to LT which became prominent in the 1970s and 80s. Based on the communicative approach to LT which became prominent in the 1970s and 80s. Proponents of this approach felt that the drill and practice programs of the previous decade did not allow enough authentic communication to be of much value. Proponents of this approach felt that the drill and practice programs of the previous decade did not allow enough authentic communication to be of much value.

8. 8 Premises for Communicative CALL focuses more on using forms rather than on the forms themselves; focuses more on using forms rather than on the forms themselves; teaches grammar implicitly rather than explicitly; teaches grammar implicitly rather than explicitly; allows and encourages students to generate original utterances rather than just manipulate prefabricated language; allows and encourages students to generate original utterances rather than just manipulate prefabricated language; does not judge and evaluate everything the students nor reward them with congratulatory messages, lights, or bells; does not judge and evaluate everything the students nor reward them with congratulatory messages, lights, or bells;

9. 9 avoids telling students they are wrong and is flexible to a variety of student responses; avoids telling students they are wrong and is flexible to a variety of student responses; uses the target language exclusively and creates an environment in which using the target language feels natural, both on and off the screen; and uses the target language exclusively and creates an environment in which using the target language feels natural, both on and off the screen; and will never try to do anything that a book can do just as well. will never try to do anything that a book can do just as well.

10. 10 Communicative CALL: Model 1 Computer as “ knower-of-the-right-answer ”, an extension of the computer as tutor model. But the process of finding the right answer involves a fair amount of student choice, control, and interaction. Computer as “ knower-of-the-right-answer ”, an extension of the computer as tutor model. But the process of finding the right answer involves a fair amount of student choice, control, and interaction. Programs to provide skill practice, but in a non- drill format. Programs to provide skill practice, but in a non- drill format. Courseware for paced reading, text reconstruction, and language games. Courseware for paced reading, text reconstruction, and language games.

11. 11 Communicative CALL: Model 2 Computer as stimulus. Computer as stimulus. Purpose is not so much to have students discover the right answer, but rather to stimulate students ’ discussion, writing, or critical thinking. Purpose is not so much to have students discover the right answer, but rather to stimulate students ’ discussion, writing, or critical thinking. Software used for these purposes include a wide variety of programs which may not have been specifically designed for language learners. Software used for these purposes include a wide variety of programs which may not have been specifically designed for language learners.

12. 12 Communicative CALL: Model 3 Computer as tool or, as workhorse. Computer as tool or, as workhorse. The programs do not necessarily provide any language material at all, but rather empower the learner to use or understand language. The programs do not necessarily provide any language material at all, but rather empower the learner to use or understand language. Examples include word processors, spelling and grammar checkers, desk-top publishing programs, and concordancers. Examples include word processors, spelling and grammar checkers, desk-top publishing programs, and concordancers.

13. 13 By the end of the 1980s, many educators felt that CALL was still failing to live up to its potential. Critics pointed out that the computer was being used in an ad hoc and disconnected fashion and thus “ finds itself making a greater contribution to marginal rather than to central elements ” of the language teaching process. By the end of the 1980s, many educators felt that CALL was still failing to live up to its potential. Critics pointed out that the computer was being used in an ad hoc and disconnected fashion and thus “ finds itself making a greater contribution to marginal rather than to central elements ” of the language teaching process.

14. 14 1.3 Integrative CALL Multimedia: CD-ROM (text, graphics, sound, animation, and video)  hypermedia Multimedia: CD-ROM (text, graphics, sound, animation, and video)  hypermedia The Internet: computer- mediated communication (CMC) The Internet: computer- mediated communication (CMC)

15. 15 Hypermedia: advantages a more authentic learning environment is created; a more authentic learning environment is created; skills are easily integrated; skills are easily integrated; students have great control over their learning; students have great control over their learning; it facilitates a principle focus on the content, without sacrificing a secondary focus on language form or learning strategies. it facilitates a principle focus on the content, without sacrificing a secondary focus on language form or learning strategies.

16. 16 Hypermedia: disadvantages Quality of available programs. Quality of available programs. Today's computer programs are not yet intelligent enough to be truly interactive. Today's computer programs are not yet intelligent enough to be truly interactive. Multimedia technology as it currently exists thus only partially contributes to integrative CALL. Multimedia technology as it currently exists thus only partially contributes to integrative CALL.

17. 17 The Internet Language learners can communicate directly, inexpensively, and conveniently with other learners or speakers of the target language 24 hours a day, from school, work, or home. Language learners can communicate directly, inexpensively, and conveniently with other learners or speakers of the target language 24 hours a day, from school, work, or home. This communication can be asynchronous through tools such as electronic mail (e-mail), or it can be synchronous, using programs which allow people all around the world to have a simultaneous conversation by typing at their keyboards. This communication can be asynchronous through tools such as electronic mail (e-mail), or it can be synchronous, using programs which allow people all around the world to have a simultaneous conversation by typing at their keyboards. It also allows not only one-to-one communication, but also one-to-many. It also allows not only one-to-one communication, but also one-to-many.

18. 18 CMC allows users to share not only brief messages, but also lengthy documents--thus facilitating collaborative writing--and also graphics, sounds, and video. CMC allows users to share not only brief messages, but also lengthy documents--thus facilitating collaborative writing--and also graphics, sounds, and video. Using the World Wide Web (WWW), students can search through millions of files around the world within minutes to locate and access authentic materials exactly tailored to their own personal interests. Using the World Wide Web (WWW), students can search through millions of files around the world within minutes to locate and access authentic materials exactly tailored to their own personal interests. They can also use the Web to publish their texts or multimedia materials to share with partner classes or with the general public. They can also use the Web to publish their texts or multimedia materials to share with partner classes or with the general public.

19. 19 1.4 Conclusion The history of CALL suggests that the computer can serve a variety of uses for language teaching. It can be The history of CALL suggests that the computer can serve a variety of uses for language teaching. It can be a tutor which offers language drills or skill practice; a tutor which offers language drills or skill practice; a stimulus for discussion and interaction; or a stimulus for discussion and interaction; or a tool for writing and research. a tool for writing and research. With the advent of the Internet, it can also be a medium of global communication and a source of limitless authentic materials. With the advent of the Internet, it can also be a medium of global communication and a source of limitless authentic materials.

20. 20 As pointed out by Garrett (1991), “ the use of the computer does not constitute a method ”. Rather, it is a “ medium in which a variety of methods, approaches, and pedagogical philosophies may be implemented ”. The effectiveness of CALL cannot reside in the medium itself but only in how it is put to use. As pointed out by Garrett (1991), “ the use of the computer does not constitute a method ”. Rather, it is a “ medium in which a variety of methods, approaches, and pedagogical philosophies may be implemented ”. The effectiveness of CALL cannot reside in the medium itself but only in how it is put to use.

21. 21 As with the audio language lab “ revolution ” of 40 years ago, those who expect to get magnificent results simply from the purchase of expensive and elaborate systems will likely be disappointed. But those who put computer technology to use in the service of good pedagogy will undoubtedly find ways to enrich their educational program and the learning opportunities of their students. As with the audio language lab “ revolution ” of 40 years ago, those who expect to get magnificent results simply from the purchase of expensive and elaborate systems will likely be disappointed. But those who put computer technology to use in the service of good pedagogy will undoubtedly find ways to enrich their educational program and the learning opportunities of their students.

22. 22 2. Machine Translation (MT) A form of translation where a computer program analyses the text in one language — the “ source text ” — and then attempts to produce another, equivalent text in another language — the target text — without human intervention. A form of translation where a computer program analyses the text in one language — the “ source text ” — and then attempts to produce another, equivalent text in another language — the target text — without human intervention. Currently the state of machine translation is such that it involves some human intervention, as it requires a pre-editing and a post-editing phase. Note that in machine translation, the translator supports the machine and not the other way around. Currently the state of machine translation is such that it involves some human intervention, as it requires a pre-editing and a post-editing phase. Note that in machine translation, the translator supports the machine and not the other way around.

23. 23 Nowadays most machine translation systems produce what is called a “ gisting translation ” — a rough translation that gives the “ gist ” of the source text, but is not otherwise usable. Nowadays most machine translation systems produce what is called a “ gisting translation ” — a rough translation that gives the “ gist ” of the source text, but is not otherwise usable. However, in fields with highly limited ranges of vocabulary and simple sentence structure, for example weather reports, machine translation can deliver useful results. However, in fields with highly limited ranges of vocabulary and simple sentence structure, for example weather reports, machine translation can deliver useful results.

24. 24 2.1 Development of MT 1950s: independent work by MT researchers, dictionary-based, word-for-word translation, low-quality results 1950s: independent work by MT researchers, dictionary-based, word-for-word translation, low-quality results 1960s: hope for good quality, due to (i) computer development and (ii) syntactic analysis 1960s: hope for good quality, due to (i) computer development and (ii) syntactic analysis Since 1970s: computer-based tools for translators, operational MT systems involving human assistance, and ‘ pure ’ theoretical research towards the improvement of MT methods. Since 1970s: computer-based tools for translators, operational MT systems involving human assistance, and ‘ pure ’ theoretical research towards the improvement of MT methods.

25. 25 The recent ‘ memory ’ facility: the storage of and access to existing translations for later reuse or revision or as sources of example translations. The recent ‘ memory ’ facility: the storage of and access to existing translations for later reuse or revision or as sources of example translations. All current commercial and operational systems produce output which must be edited or revised if it is to be of published quality. All current commercial and operational systems produce output which must be edited or revised if it is to be of published quality. MT works best in domain- specific and controlled environments. MT works best in domain- specific and controlled environments.

26. 26 2.2 MT research methods Linguistic approaches: Linguistic approaches: categorial grammar categorial grammar transformational-generative grammar (TG) transformational-generative grammar (TG) dependency grammar dependency grammar stratificational grammar stratificational grammar lexical-functional grammar (LFG) lexical-functional grammar (LFG) generalized phrase structure grammar (GPSG) generalized phrase structure grammar (GPSG) head-driven phrase structure grammar (HPSG) head-driven phrase structure grammar (HPSG) Montague semantics, etc. Montague semantics, etc.

27. 27 Non-linguistic theories used: Non-linguistic theories used: information theory information theory neural networks neural networks connectionism connectionism parallel processing parallel processing statistical methods statistical methods etc. etc.

28. 28 Practical approaches: Practical approaches: the transfer approach the transfer approach the interlingual approach the interlingual approach the knowledge-based approach the knowledge-based approach

29. 29 2.3 Areas of MT MT quality MT quality MT and the internet MT and the internet Spoken language translation Spoken language translation MT and human translation MT and human translation

30. 30 3. Corpus Linguistics Corpus (plural corpora): a collection of linguistic data, either compiled as written texts or as a transcription of recorded speech. The main purpose of a corpus is to verify a hypothesis about language--for example, to determine how the usage of a particular sound, word, or syntactic construction varies. Corpus (plural corpora): a collection of linguistic data, either compiled as written texts or as a transcription of recorded speech. The main purpose of a corpus is to verify a hypothesis about language--for example, to determine how the usage of a particular sound, word, or syntactic construction varies.

31. 31 3.1 Corpus Linguistics Corpus linguistics deals with the principles and practice of using corpora in language study. Corpus linguistics deals with the principles and practice of using corpora in language study. A computer corpus is a large body of machine- readable texts. A computer corpus is a large body of machine- readable texts.

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34. 34 3.2 Concordance poor in Tale of Two Cities, Book 1

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42. 42 3.3 Frequency count: ‘ Feminine ’ Adjectives in 19th c. US Fiction AdjectiveWomenMen little11259 dear2015 happy159 pretty149 sweet138 lovely123 pale115 beautiful96 Total words 4000040000

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44. 44 3.4 Dictionary making: Collins COBUILD

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46. 46 3.5 The roles of corpus data Speech research Speech research Lexical studies Lexical studies Semantics Semantics Sociolinguistics Sociolinguistics Psycholinguistics Psycholinguistics

47. 47 4. Language and the Internet A linguist can ’ t help but be impressed by the Internet. It is an extraordinarily diverse medium, holding a mirror up to many sides of our linguistic nature. The World Wide Web, in particular, offers a home to virtually all the styles which have so far developed in the written language – newspapers, scientific reports, bulletins, novels, poems, prayers – you name it, you ’ ll find a page on it. Indeed, it is introducing us to styles of written expression which none of us have ever seen before. It has often been said, the Internet is a revolution – yes, indeed, but it is also a linguistic revolution. David Crystal (2001): Language and the Internet

48. 48 4.1 Internet terminology (Netspeak) bounce What your e-mail does when it cannot get to its recipient--it bounces back to you (unless it goes off into the ether, never to be found again). bounce What your e-mail does when it cannot get to its recipient--it bounces back to you (unless it goes off into the ether, never to be found again). BTW Used in an e-mail message to stand for "by the way." BTW Used in an e-mail message to stand for "by the way." cobweb page A Web page that hasn't been updated in a long time. cobweb page A Web page that hasn't been updated in a long time.

49. 49 compunications Any form of computer-based communication, including e-mail, fax, and voice mail. compunications Any form of computer-based communication, including e-mail, fax, and voice mail. cybercafe Establishment cybercafe Establishment with both coffee and internet access. Trendy in some places, unknown in others.

50. 50 Cyberstyle The writing style used in most on-line communications. This style is characterized by one or more of the following traits: frequent use of abbreviations, acronyms, and jargon; "street" slang (e.g., using "cuz" instead of "because"); typos, misspelled words, and a general inattention to grammar and sentence structure; a rambling, stream-of- consciousness style. Cyberstyle The writing style used in most on-line communications. This style is characterized by one or more of the following traits: frequent use of abbreviations, acronyms, and jargon; "street" slang (e.g., using "cuz" instead of "because"); typos, misspelled words, and a general inattention to grammar and sentence structure; a rambling, stream-of- consciousness style.

51. 51 咖啡雪 14:22:03 看满成近代黄金家了吗 可可冰 14:22:08 米. 他们说周结论在里面演的好烂. 咖啡雪 14:22:13 还好拉 我都感动得犀利哗啦的 不过里面有个 镜头船帮了 我半夜看的 可可冰 14:22:20 啊 你再那看的 熬夜会长豆豆哦 咖啡雪 14:22:24 下的 要不要穿给你 可可冰 14:22:30 瑕疵吧 我去完啦

52. 52 egosurfing Searching databases, the Internet, newspapers, magazines, wire services, research papers and new books for your own name. Egosurfing is the crack cocaine of the cognoscenti, each "hit" producing yelps of pleasure and mounting delirium. egosurfing Searching databases, the Internet, newspapers, magazines, wire services, research papers and new books for your own name. Egosurfing is the crack cocaine of the cognoscenti, each "hit" producing yelps of pleasure and mounting delirium.

53. 53 F2F Stands for "face to face," and refers to when you actually meet face to face people you have been corresponding with through e-mail or other parts of the Internet F2F Stands for "face to face," and refers to when you actually meet face to face people you have been corresponding with through e-mail or other parts of the Internet IMHO (In My Humble Opinion) A shorthand appended to a comment written in an on-line forum, IMHO indicates that the writer is aware that they are expressing a debatable view, probably on a subject already under discussion. One of many such shorthands in common use on-line, especially in discussion forums. IMHO (In My Humble Opinion) A shorthand appended to a comment written in an on-line forum, IMHO indicates that the writer is aware that they are expressing a debatable view, probably on a subject already under discussion. One of many such shorthands in common use on-line, especially in discussion forums.

54. 54 mouse potato The on-line generation's answer to the couch potato. A computer addict. A mouse potato clings to a computer as persistently as a couch potato roots before a television set. mouse potato The on-line generation's answer to the couch potato. A computer addict. A mouse potato clings to a computer as persistently as a couch potato roots before a television set.

55. 55 Netiquette A pun on ‘ etiquette ’ referring to proper behavior on a network. Netiquette A pun on ‘ etiquette ’ referring to proper behavior on a network. nomepage A homepage with little or no content -- perhaps an image of the person's pet and a few links to their favorite tv show, but nothing original and not much of anything else. nomepage A homepage with little or no content -- perhaps an image of the person's pet and a few links to their favorite tv show, but nothing original and not much of anything else. read-only user A person who uses the Internet exclusively for reading Web pages, e-mail, and newsgroups instead of creating their own content. read-only user A person who uses the Internet exclusively for reading Web pages, e-mail, and newsgroups instead of creating their own content.

56. 56 ROM brain A person who refuses to accept input and ideas from other people. ROM brain A person who refuses to accept input and ideas from other people. smileys Collections of character meant to totally replace body language, intonation and complete physical presence. for example happy faces ;-), or smiley faces :-) and sad faces :-( when viewed from sideways. smileys Collections of character meant to totally replace body language, intonation and complete physical presence. for example happy faces ;-), or smiley faces :-) and sad faces :-( when viewed from sideways.

57. 57 4.2 Abbreviations commonly used in online communication afkaway from keyboard afkaway from keyboard bbl be back later bbl be back later bbiab be back in a bit bbiab be back in a bit brb be right back brb be right back btw by the way btw by the way cya see ya cya see ya gmta great minds think alike gmta great minds think alike

58. 58 j/k just kidding j/k just kidding irl in real life irl in real life lol laughing out loud lol laughing out loud nick internet nickname nick internet nickname rotfl rolling on the floor laughing rotfl rolling on the floor laughing ttfn ta ta for now ttfn ta ta for now ttyl talk to you later ttyl talk to you later wb welcome back wb welcome back

59. 59 5.3 Emoticons/smileys :-) ha ha :-) ha ha |-) hee hee |-) hee hee |-D ho ho |-D ho ho :-> hey hey :-> hey hey :-( boo boo  :-( boo boo  :-| hmmm :-| hmmm :-O oops :-O oops

60. 60 :-* oooops :-* oooops :-o uh oh! :-o uh oh! {} 'no comment' {} 'no comment' :-o oh, no! :-o oh, no! #:-o oh, no! #:-o oh, no! :-0 ohhhhhh! :-0 ohhhhhh! |:-O big ohhhhhh! |:-O big ohhhhhh! :-))) reeeaaaaaallllly happy :-))) reeeaaaaaallllly happy >;-(' I am spitting mad >;-(' I am spitting mad :'-( I am crying :'-( I am crying

61. 61 <3 I love you <3 I love you :'-) I am so happy, I am crying :'-) I am so happy, I am crying :-@ I am screaming :-@ I am screaming ((H))) a big hug ((H))) a big hug :-X a big wet kiss :-X a big wet kiss :-D I am laughing (at you!) :-D I am laughing (at you!) |-O I am bored/yawning/snoring |-O I am bored/yawning/snoring :-o zz z z Z Z I am bored :-o zz z z Z Z I am bored :-S I am confused :-S I am confused :-e I am disappointed :-e I am disappointed

62. 62 (:-... I am heart-broken (:-... I am heart-broken |-| I am going to sleep |-| I am going to sleep ( @ @ ) You're kidding! ( @ @ ) You're kidding! @*&$!% you know what that means.... @*&$!% you know what that means.... **-( I am very, very shocked **-( I am very, very shocked :^D great! I like it! :^D great! I like it! M:-) I salute you (respect) M:-) I salute you (respect) :+( I am hurt by that remark :+( I am hurt by that remark =-o I am suprised =-o I am suprised <=-O I am frightened <=-O I am frightened

63. 63 =-<> I am awe struck =-<> I am awe struck $-> I am happily excited $-> I am happily excited :-~(~~~ I am moved to tears :-~(~~~ I am moved to tears =^) I am open minded =^) I am open minded >w oh really! (ironic) >w oh really! (ironic)