1. The Ethics of Covert Investigations

2. Arguments for Covert Investigations Citizens grant to government the right to use exceptional means. Citizens grant to government the right to use exceptional means. Undercover work is ethical when used for a good and important end. Undercover work is ethical when used for a good and important end. Enforce the law equally. Enforce the law equally.

3. Convict the guilty Convict the guilty Investigations are ethical when they are non-intrusive as possible. Investigations are ethical when they are non-intrusive as possible. When citizens use questionable means, government agents are justified in using equivalent means. When citizens use questionable means, government agents are justified in using equivalent means.

4. Undercover work is ethical when there are reasonable grounds for suspicion. Undercover work is ethical when there are reasonable grounds for suspicion. Special risks justify special precautions. Special risks justify special precautions. Undercover work is ethical when done by persons of upright character in accountable organizations. Undercover work is ethical when done by persons of upright character in accountable organizations.

5. Undercover work is ethical when the decision to use these techniques has been announced publicly. Undercover work is ethical when the decision to use these techniques has been announced publicly. Undercover work is ethical when it is undertaken with the intentions of eventually being made public and judged in court. Undercover work is ethical when it is undertaken with the intentions of eventually being made public and judged in court.

6. Arguments against Covert or Undercover Investigations Truth telling is moral; lying is immoral. Truth telling is moral; lying is immoral. The government should neither participate in, nor be a party to crime nor break the law to enforce it. The government should neither participate in, nor be a party to crime nor break the law to enforce it. The government should not make deals with criminals. The government should not make deals with criminals.

7. The government should not offer unrealistic temptations or tempt the weak. The government should not offer unrealistic temptations or tempt the weak. Do not harm the innocent. Do not harm the innocent. Respect the sanctity of private places. Respect the sanctity of private places. Respect the freedom of expression and action. Respect the freedom of expression and action.

8. It is wrong to discriminate in target selection. It is wrong to discriminate in target selection. The government should not do by stealth what it is prohibited from doing openly. The government should not do by stealth what it is prohibited from doing openly.