1. Freedom - Determinism Theories u Determinism: all human actions are caused u Hard Determinism: behavior is caused by either unconscious desires and fears (Freud) or by environment and heredity (Skinner). Freedom is an illusion, and people are not responsible for their actions—though they can be held responsible for social purposes u Objections: how we can challenge or change our attitudes if we are determined? Why not explain behavior with reasons, not causes?

2. Freedom - Determinism Theories u Libertarianism: our free choices define our selves: this is what we experience, and is what our theory should explain (Sartre) u Objection: how can “we” be both cause & effect? u Freedom as an Assumption: Morality requires that we think of ourselves as free. As objects in the world, we are determined; but as conscious, choosing beings, we are free (Kant)

3. u Existentialism: freedom & self-consciousness consist in our ability to conceive that which is not—and that could not be caused by what is u The proper way to describe human actions is in terms of reasons, not causes Objection: Wanting to believe in freedom does not make it true; besides, even that belief itself is determined Freedom - Determinism Theories