1. Theories of Human Nature Psychological Egoism: human beings are simply physical bodies in motion; they always act in self- interested, aggressive ways (Freud, Hobbes, Schlick) Traditional Western view: all human beings have an enduring, rational, independent, spiritual self separate from the body Rationalist view: reason can achieve happiness by controlling our appetites and aggression (Plato, Aristotle) Religious view: through love of God and others, we can be happy by fulfilling our call to be God-like (Augustine)

2. Challenges to the Traditional Views of Human Nature $ Evolutionism: like other animals, human abilities have evolved due to random variation and natural selection, not because of purposeful design (Darwin) Objections: evolution could be divinely directed; and human reason and language are qualitatively unlike anything found among animals

3. Challenges to the Traditional Views of Human Nature Existentialism: we freely choose to create our essence or nature; to choose to believe we cannot choose due to genetics, upbringing, or unconscious motives is to act in “bad faith”; our existence precedes our essence (Sartre) Feminism: feeling and emotion are just as important as reason in defining human nature