1. CAS LX 502 Semantics 4a. Events and Theta roles 3.5, 4.4 (8.1, 8.2)

2. Situations We can think of sentences as referring to situations (events, states, eventualities). We can think of sentences as referring to situations (events, states, eventualities). A sentence like Pat opened the door can be thought of as meaning A sentence like Pat opened the door can be thought of as meaning ‘There is an event, it is an opening, it affects the door, and it is instigated by Pat.’ ‘There is an event, it is an opening, it affects the door, and it is instigated by Pat.’ In understanding the details of our interpretive system, reference to events/situations can prove useful. In understanding the details of our interpretive system, reference to events/situations can prove useful.

3. Tense Events take place in time, and language uses tense to situate events in time. Events take place in time, and language uses tense to situate events in time. Pat sang the national anthem. Pat sang the national anthem. (The singing event was in the past—before now) (The singing event was in the past—before now) Pat will sing the national anthem. Pat will sing the national anthem. (The singing event is in the future—after now) (The singing event is in the future—after now) Pat is singing the national anthem. Pat is singing the national anthem. (The singing event is now) (The singing event is now) Now

4. Situation types States: static and unchanging States: static and unchanging Individual-level: Individual-level: Pat is tall. Pat is tall. Pat knows French. Pat knows French. Stage-level: Stage-level: Pat is hungry. Pat is hungry. Pat is bored. Pat is bored. Events: dynamic, involving motion/change Events: dynamic, involving motion/change Pat is pushing the cart into the corner. Pat is pushing the cart into the corner.

5. Tense vs. aspect Tense locates a situation in time, aspect describes the internal temporal structure of the situation. Tense locates a situation in time, aspect describes the internal temporal structure of the situation. Completed (perfect) Completed (perfect) Pat had eaten a sandwich. Pat had eaten a sandwich. Pat has eaten a sandwich. Pat has eaten a sandwich. Pat will have eaten a sandwich. Pat will have eaten a sandwich. Ongoing (progressive) Ongoing (progressive) Pat was eating a sandwich. Pat was eating a sandwich. Pat is eating a sandwich. Pat is eating a sandwich. Pat will be eating a sandwich. Pat will be eating a sandwich.

6. Classifying situations States (want, love, hate, know, believe) States (want, love, hate, know, believe) Activities (run, walk, swim, push a cart) Activities (run, walk, swim, push a cart) Accomplishments (run a mile, walk to the store, paint a picture, draw a circle) Accomplishments (run a mile, walk to the store, paint a picture, draw a circle) Achievements (recognize, find, stop, reach the top) Achievements (recognize, find, stop, reach the top) Semelfactives (cough, knock) (don’t change state) Semelfactives (cough, knock) (don’t change state)

7. Classifying situations The different situation types essentially define the different kinds of “shadow” the situation casts on the timeline. The different situation types essentially define the different kinds of “shadow” the situation casts on the timeline. Point: Part of our semantic knowledge includes knowledge about situations/events. Point: Part of our semantic knowledge includes knowledge about situations/events. We will return to a more detailed discussion of tense and aspect and event structure later in the course. We will return to a more detailed discussion of tense and aspect and event structure later in the course.

8. Roles in an event Pat pushed the cart into the corner with a stick. Pat pushed the cart into the corner with a stick. This sentence describes an event, tying together several participants: This sentence describes an event, tying together several participants: The event is a pushing event The event is a pushing event Pat is the instigator of the event Pat is the instigator of the event The cart is affected (moved) during the event The cart is affected (moved) during the event The corner marks the endpoint of the path The corner marks the endpoint of the path A stick is the instrument used to effect the movement A stick is the instrument used to effect the movement

9. Thematic roles Agent: initiator, capable of acting with volition Agent: initiator, capable of acting with volition Patient: entity undergoing change Patient: entity undergoing change Theme: entity moved or located Theme: entity moved or located Experiencer: Aware of event, but not in control Experiencer: Aware of event, but not in control Beneficiary: Entity for whose benefit the event occurs Beneficiary: Entity for whose benefit the event occurs Instrument: Means by which event comes about Instrument: Means by which event comes about Location: Place in which event occurs Location: Place in which event occurs Goal: Entity/place toward which something moves Goal: Entity/place toward which something moves Source: Entity/place from which something moves Source: Entity/place from which something moves

10. thematic roles (  -grids) Among the pieces of information stored in our mental lexicon about predicates is the  -grid of a predicate. Among the pieces of information stored in our mental lexicon about predicates is the  -grid of a predicate. The predicate names a kind of event, and specifies what entities play a role in the event. The predicate names a kind of event, and specifies what entities play a role in the event. put V: put V: Pat put the book on the table. Pat put the book on the table.

11.  -grids put V: put V: Pat put the book on the table. Pat put the book on the table. Conventionally, only required  -roles are listed in the  -roles. That is,  -roles that are necessary in specifying the event. Conventionally, only required  -roles are listed in the  -roles. That is,  -roles that are necessary in specifying the event. *Pat put on the table. *Pat put on the table. *Pat put the book. *Pat put the book. Pat put the book on the table with a spatula. Pat put the book on the table with a spatula.

12. Arguments and adjuncts An argument is required by the  -grid. An argument is required by the  -grid. An adjunct is superfluous, less connected to the event, freer in ordering. Can be added to further specify any kind of compatible event. An adjunct is superfluous, less connected to the event, freer in ordering. Can be added to further specify any kind of compatible event. *Pat put the fork. *Pat put the fork. Pat put the fork on the table. Pat put the fork on the table. Pat put the fork on the table with gusto at 6pm. Pat put the fork on the table with gusto at 6pm. Pat put the fork on the table at 6pm with gusto. Pat put the fork on the table at 6pm with gusto. With gusto, Pat put the fork on the table at 6pm. With gusto, Pat put the fork on the table at 6pm. *Pat put the fork at 6pm with gusto on the table. *Pat put the fork at 6pm with gusto on the table. *On the table, Pat put the fork at 6pm with gusto. *On the table, Pat put the fork at 6pm with gusto.

13. Classes of verbs We can classify verbs by the number of  - roles in their  -grids. We can classify verbs by the number of  - roles in their  -grids. Intransitive: trip Intransitive: trip Transitive: kick Transitive: kick Ditransitive: put Ditransitive: put Atransitive: rain Atransitive: rain Sort of. Sort of. The baby kicked, Pat tripped Tracy, Chris read (the book). It’s more complicated than it seems. The baby kicked, Pat tripped Tracy, Chris read (the book). It’s more complicated than it seems.

14. Classes of verbs Even apart from valency (number of arguments in the  -grid), we can identify lots of classes of verbs that behave alike in terms of  -roles. Even apart from valency (number of arguments in the  -grid), we can identify lots of classes of verbs that behave alike in terms of  -roles. give, lend, supply, pay, donate, contribute V: give, lend, supply, pay, donate, contribute V: receive, accept, borrow, buy, purchase, rent, hire V: receive, accept, borrow, buy, purchase, rent, hire V: break, open, sink, collapse V: V: break, open, sink, collapse V: V: eat, drink, read, paint V: V: eat, drink, read, paint V: V:

15. What are the  -roles? How do we know that the list of  -roles we have is right? How do we know that the list of  -roles we have is right? We don’t. We don’t. We can group  -roles in various ways, or subdivide them. The question is what provides the greatest insight to linguistic structure. We can group  -roles in various ways, or subdivide them. The question is what provides the greatest insight to linguistic structure. The rock frightens Pat. The rock frightens Pat. Pat frightens the rock. Pat frightens the rock. The car ran over the nail in the road. The car ran over the nail in the road. Theme = Patient? Recipient = Goal = Beneficiary? Does it matter? Theme = Patient? Recipient = Goal = Beneficiary? Does it matter? Actor vs. Agent? Actor vs. Agent? Malicious Agent vs. Benevolent Agent? Malicious Agent vs. Benevolent Agent?

16. Can an argument get more than one thematic role/  -role? Pat threw the ball to Tracy. Pat threw the ball to Tracy. Yes. Yes. (e.g., Jackendoff) Pat: Agent, Source; the ball: Patient, Theme; Tracy: Goal. (e.g., Jackendoff) Pat: Agent, Source; the ball: Patient, Theme; Tracy: Goal. No. No. (e.g., Chomsky)  -roles can contain more than one  - relation, but it is linguistically one role (bundle of  - relations). Pat [Agent, Source]. (e.g., Chomsky)  -roles can contain more than one  - relation, but it is linguistically one role (bundle of  - relations). Pat [Agent, Source]. Depends on what generalization is most useful in predicting things. Seems likely that the second one is better by that measure. Depends on what generalization is most useful in predicting things. Seems likely that the second one is better by that measure.

17. Subjects and objects We can identify parts of sentences as subjects, predicates, objects. We can identify parts of sentences as subjects, predicates, objects. Often these are defined by position and by case. Often these are defined by position and by case. I met her. She met me. I met her. She met me. Grammatical roles and  -roles are dissociable. Grammatical roles and  -roles are dissociable. Pat closed the door. Pat closed the door. The door closed. The door closed.

18. Linking Almost any  -role can be a structural subject. Almost any  -role can be a structural subject. Chris planned the heist. Chris planned the heist. Tracy saw the crime occur. Tracy saw the crime occur. The window broke. The window broke. The hammer smashed the glass. The hammer smashed the glass. Chris tripped. Chris tripped. Chris got a summons. Chris got a summons.

19. Linking There are tendencies at least. There are tendencies at least. If there’s an Agent, it is the subject. If there’s an Agent, it is the subject. The exam failed Pat. The exam failed Pat. Otherwise, if there’s an instrument, it is the subject. Otherwise, if there’s an instrument, it is the subject. The hammer broke the vase. The hammer broke the vase. Otherwise, if there’s a Theme or Patient, it is the subject. Otherwise, if there’s a Theme or Patient, it is the subject. The vase broke. The vase broke. *The vase broke with the hammer. *The vase broke with the hammer.

20. Linking hierarchies Determining which  -role is the subject? Agent/Experiencer > Instrument > Theme/Patient Determining which  -role is the subject? Agent/Experiencer > Instrument > Theme/Patient Pat broke the vase on Tuesday with a hammer. Pat broke the vase on Tuesday with a hammer. The hammer broke the vase on Tuesday. The hammer broke the vase on Tuesday. The vase broke on Tuesday (*with a hammer) The vase broke on Tuesday (*with a hammer) The dog ate my homework. The dog ate my homework. My homework was eaten (by the dog). My homework was eaten (by the dog). Tracy was given my homework. Tracy was given my homework. *A fork was eaten my homework. *A fork was eaten my homework.

21. Why  -roles? We are trying to describe generalizations about language, meaning, the mapping to structure. We are trying to describe generalizations about language, meaning, the mapping to structure. We can imagine a lot of different kinds of roles. E.g., Patient could undergo a lot of different degrees of affectedness We can imagine a lot of different kinds of roles. E.g., Patient could undergo a lot of different degrees of affectedness Touch (no change) Touch (no change) Squeeze (temporary change) Squeeze (temporary change) Break (fundamental change) Break (fundamental change)

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23. Dowty on  -roles Fine-grain:  -roles are really collections of entailments. E.g., “does a volitional act”, “with intent”, “moves or changes externally.” Many verbs share this entailment with their most prominent argument (“Agent”). Fine-grain:  -roles are really collections of entailments. E.g., “does a volitional act”, “with intent”, “moves or changes externally.” Many verbs share this entailment with their most prominent argument (“Agent”). Course-grain: There are only these collections of  -roles, of two kinds (Proto- Agent, Proto-Patient). Which collection plays the more prominent role depends on the constitution of the collection (relatively). Course-grain: There are only these collections of  -roles, of two kinds (Proto- Agent, Proto-Patient). Which collection plays the more prominent role depends on the constitution of the collection (relatively).

24. Proto-Agent, Proto-Patient Proto-Agent Proto-Agent Volitional involvement Volitional involvement Sentience/perception Sentience/perception Causing event or change of state in another participant Causing event or change of state in another participant Movement relative to another participant Movement relative to another participant Proto-Patient Proto-Patient Undergoes change of state Undergoes change of state Incremental theme Incremental theme Causally affected by another participant Causally affected by another participant Stationary relative to another participant Stationary relative to another participant Agent is a prototypical Proto-Agent. Experiencer, less so, Instrument less so. Patient is a prototypical Proto-Patient, Beneficiary less so. Agent is a prototypical Proto-Agent. Experiencer, less so, Instrument less so. Patient is a prototypical Proto-Patient, Beneficiary less so.

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26. Why  -roles? We get some generalization power by considering  -roles, allowing us to define classes of verbs that share similar behavior. We get some generalization power by considering  -roles, allowing us to define classes of verbs that share similar behavior. As an example, psychological verbs (admire, enjoy, amuse, frighten), which have an Experiencer and a Stimulus (or Percept). As an example, psychological verbs (admire, enjoy, amuse, frighten), which have an Experiencer and a Stimulus (or Percept). Two types, differing in the linking of arguments to syntactic positions. Two types, differing in the linking of arguments to syntactic positions. Point here: we need to refer to  -roles to differentiate the two types. Point here: we need to refer to  -roles to differentiate the two types.

27. Psych verbs Type 1 (Subject-experiencer) Type 1 (Subject-experiencer) admire, enjoy, fear, like, love, relish, savor admire, enjoy, fear, like, love, relish, savor V: V: Type 2 (Object-experiencer) Type 2 (Object-experiencer) amuse, entertain, frighten, interest, please, surprise, thrill amuse, entertain, frighten, interest, please, surprise, thrill V: V:

28.  -roles and language description Saeed (in another Semantics textbook) gives the example of Lakhota, which morphologically marks Patient and Agent (hence we need the concepts to adequately describe the language). Saeed (in another Semantics textbook) gives the example of Lakhota, which morphologically marks Patient and Agent (hence we need the concepts to adequately describe the language). Agent subjects or objects wa- Agent subjects or objects wa- Patient subjects or objects ma- Patient subjects or objects ma-

29. Active vs. Passive (Voice) Pat ate the sandwich Pat ate the sandwich The sandwich was eaten (by Pat) The sandwich was eaten (by Pat) Passive “demotes” the Agent/Experiencer, promoting the next  -role to subject. Passive “demotes” the Agent/Experiencer, promoting the next  -role to subject. eatV: (active) eatenV: (passive) eatV: (active) eatenV: (passive) The book was given to Pat.(theme) The book was given to Pat.(theme) Pat was given a book.(recipient) Pat was given a book.(recipient) The shot was heard ’round the world.(percept) The shot was heard ’round the world.(percept) The kids were frightened.(experiencer) The kids were frightened.(experiencer) The ghost was feared.(stimulus) The ghost was feared.(stimulus)

30. Passive Generally, only the highest argument can be promoted to subject position in the passive. Generally, only the highest argument can be promoted to subject position in the passive. He sprayed paint on the wall. He sprayed the wall with paint. He sprayed paint on the wall. He sprayed the wall with paint. Paint was sprayed on the wall. The wall was sprayed with paint. Paint was sprayed on the wall. The wall was sprayed with paint. *The wall was sprayed paint on. *Paint was sprayed the wall with. *The wall was sprayed paint on. *Paint was sprayed the wall with. He loaded hay onto the truck. He loaded the truck with hay. He loaded hay onto the truck. He loaded the truck with hay. Hay was loaded onto the truck. The truck was loaded with hay. Hay was loaded onto the truck. The truck was loaded with hay. *The truck was loaded hay onto. *Hay was loaded the truck with. *The truck was loaded hay onto. *Hay was loaded the truck with. He gave a book to Mary. He gave Mary a book. He gave a book to Mary. He gave Mary a book. A book was given to Mary. Mary was given a book. A book was given to Mary. Mary was given a book. *Mary was given a book to. *A book was given Mary. *Mary was given a book to. *A book was given Mary.

31. Passive usage Passives are often useful to “background” the subject (either to total omission or at least to a less prominent role). Passives are often useful to “background” the subject (either to total omission or at least to a less prominent role). Pat took a trip to Providence yesterday. Pat took a trip to Providence yesterday. The police arrested him. The police arrested him. He was arrested by the police. He was arrested by the police. He sprayed the car with paint. He sprayed the car with paint. #The car was sprayed with paint. #The car was sprayed with paint.

32. Middles Middles are sort of like passives: the Agent/Experiencer is suppressed and the next  -role is promoted to subject. The verb does not take on a passive form (in English), and the construction is generally only available to describe a degree of “success”: Middles are sort of like passives: the Agent/Experiencer is suppressed and the next  -role is promoted to subject. The verb does not take on a passive form (in English), and the construction is generally only available to describe a degree of “success”: Pat broke the calculator. Pat broke the calculator. The calculator was broken. The calculator was broken. This calculator breaks easily. This calculator breaks easily.

33. Adverbs How might we describe the meaning of an adverb? Say, loudly. How might we describe the meaning of an adverb? Say, loudly. The hooligan shouted loudly. The hooligan shouted loudly. Well, it seems a bit like this: Well, it seems a bit like this: There was a shouting event. There was a shouting event. The hooligan was the Agent of that event. The hooligan was the Agent of that event. It was a loud event. It was a loud event. Adverbs seem to modify events Adverbs seem to modify events

34. Adverb(-like thing)s as event modifiers The hooligan shouted loudly on Saturday atop the bench by the tree in the rain. The hooligan shouted loudly on Saturday atop the bench by the tree in the rain. This asserts the existence of an event that: This asserts the existence of an event that: Is a shouting Is a shouting Has the hooligan as Agent Has the hooligan as Agent Is loud Is loud Is on Saturday Is on Saturday Is atop the bench Is atop the bench Is by the tree Is by the tree Is in the rain Is in the rain Great for manner and temporal adverbs. Great for manner and temporal adverbs.

35. Subject-oriented adverbs Zin é dine intentionally hit Marco. Zin é dine intentionally hit Marco. Marco was intentionally hit by Zin é dine. Marco was intentionally hit by Zin é dine. It’s not the whole event that is intentional, it is somehow related to one of the participants. The subject? Well, yes. The Agent? Maybe. It’s not the whole event that is intentional, it is somehow related to one of the participants. The subject? Well, yes. The Agent? Maybe. That second one seems a bit ambiguous That second one seems a bit ambiguous

36. Speaker-oriented adverbs Annoyingly, Pat was late. Annoyingly, Pat was late. Predictably, Pat (stupidly) answered the questions (brilliantly) Predictably, Pat (stupidly) answered the questions (brilliantly)

37.                       