1. Systems Failures 3: the communication paradigm Systems Failures: theory and practice

2. Communication in this context: Involves transmission of data between: – subsystems –system and wider system –system and environment. Communication paradigm originally based on engineering ideas (Shannon and Weaver) BUT requires attention to both the delivery of the data and its comprehension

3. Standard model of communication Based on Shannon and Weaver’s Information Theory Essential purpose of information is to reduce uncertainty (therefore has a measurable value) Issues then related to accuracy and speed of delivery of data

4. Relevance of the standard model Relates to the quantity of data –lack of data means a decision can’t be made. –overload of data means the channel can’t cope. Useful where the decision requiring the data is well-bounded –data requirements are known in advance. –decision is made according to a regular algorithm.

5. Other issues relating to data overload Could be a result of decision-making being concentrated in the wider system May result from the wider system not giving sufficient guidelines on how to take decisions One part of the organisation may automate data production without considering how other parts will cope with the data.

6. Implications for management and organisational structure Need for autonomous decision-making at a local level (issues of trust too). Wider system should look at aggregates and summaries, not at details of individual cases. Need for information to be collected about the environment as well as internal operations.

7. Issues for complex webs of communication Hierarchies are rigid but clear. If much communication is informal, how do we guarantee that essential data has been transferred? –Define essential processes and give named individuals responsibility for ensuring that they are carried out? –Concentrate on addressing issues of culture more than process and structure?

8. Models of Communication Shannon and Weaver –Classic mathematical model –One way communication De Fleur’s Model –A circular model –Noise throughout the cycle Stanton –Noise at the ideas stage

9. Models of communication Gerbner’s Model –Perception –“that’s what I thought I saw” Maletzke’s Model –“the medium is the message” Scramm’s Model –Mass communication