1. Punishment: By Stimulus Presentation By Stimulus Removal
Chaps 14 and 15

2. Punishment: By Stimulus Presentation

3. Introduction Punishment is: Will you ever use it?
Poorly understood
Frequently misapplied
Controversial
Will you ever use it?
Under what conditions?
Why talk about it?

4. Punishment is Controversial
Many states have outlawed the use of some punishers (e.g., contingent electric shock)
Some advocates claim that reinforcement-based procedures are sufficient to reduce all problem behavior (e.g., DRO, DRA)
Others disagree
Even if we are able to eliminate the clinical/educational need for punishment, research on punishment is still warranted
Punishment contingencies that are arranged by the physical world are impossible to eliminate – exs?

5. Punishment…….
Should only be used if there is a doctoral level behavior analyst on staff full time
Why?

6. Introduction
As a principle of behavior, punishment is not about punishing the person.
Punishment is a:
response consequence contingency that suppresses the future frequency of similar responses.

7. Definitions & Nature of Punishment
Positive Punishment: Type I Punishment
Presentation of a stimulus (or an increase in the intensity of an already present stimulus) immediately following a behavior that results in a decrease in the frequency of the behavior.
Negative Punishment: Type II Punishment
The termination of an already present stimulus (or a decrease in the intensity of an already present stimulus) immediately following a behavior that results in a decrease in the future frequency of the behavior.

8. Three-term contingencies illustrating positive and negative punishment of a discriminated operant:
A discriminated operant for punishment is the product of a conditioning history in which responses in the presence of the SDp have been punished and similar responses in the absence of the SDp have not been punished.
A response (R) emitted in the presence of a discriminative stimulus (SDp) is followed closely in time by a stimulus change (SP) and results in a decreased frequency of similar responses in the future when the SDp is present.

9. Definitions & Nature of Punishment
Discriminative Effects of Punishment
SDp
A stimulus condition in the presence of which a response has a lower probability of occurrence than it does in its absence as a result of response-contingent punishment delivery in the presence of the stimulus.

10. Definitions & Nature of Punishment
Unconditioned Punisher
Primary punisher or unlearned punisher
E.g.?
Conditioned Punisher
Secondary punisher or learned punisher
Verbal Analog Conditioning
E.g.,?
Generalized Conditioned Punisher

11. Definitions & Nature of Punishment
- IMPORTANT POINT -
Punishers, like reinforcers, are not defined by their physical properties, but by their functions.
What does that mean?

12. Ethical Considerations Regarding the Use of Punishment
Right to Safe and Humane Treatment
The first ethical canon and responsibility for any human services program is to do no harm.
Least Restrictive Alternative
Doctrine of the Least Restrictive Alternative
The less intrusive procedures should be tried and found to be ineffective before more intrusive procedures are implemented.
Interventions can be viewed as falling along a continuum of restrictiveness from least to most.
Gast & Wolery (1987) suggest that a more intrusive but effective procedure should be chosen over a less intrusive but ineffective procedure

13. Hierarchy of Procedural Alternatives
Least intrusive
Level I
Reinforcement-Based Strategies
Level II
Extinction
Level III
Negative Punishment
Level IV
Positive Punishment
Most intrusive

14. Ethical Considerations Regarding the Use of Punishment
Right to Effective Treatment
Failing to use a punishment procedure that research has show to suppress self-destructive behavior similar to the client’s is unethical because it withholds a potentially effective treatment and may maintain a dangerous or uncomfortable state for the person.
Developing and Using a Punishment Policy with Procedural Safeguards
Follow a written policy statement.
Consult local, state, or professional association policy statement regarding the use of punishment.

15. 4.02 Reinforcement/Punishment.
BACB Guidelines for Responsible Conduct
4.02 Reinforcement/Punishment.
The behavior analyst recommends reinforcement rather than punishment whenever possible. If punishment procedures are necessary, the behavior analyst always includes reinforcement procedures for alternative behavior in the program

16. ABA Statement on the Right to Effective Behavioral Treatment www
ABA Statement on the Right to Effective Behavioral Treatment
Individuals who receive behavioral treatment have a right to…
6 - The most effective treatment procedures available: An individual is entitled to effective and scientifically validated treatment; in turn, the behavior analyst has an obligation to use only those procedures demonstrated by research to be effective. Decisions on the use of potentially restrictive treatment are based on consideration of its absolute and relative level of restrictiveness, the amount of time required to produce a clinically significant outcome, and the consequences that would result from delayed intervention.

17. Possible Side Effects and Problems with Punishment
Elicitation of undesirable emotional response and aggression
Punishment, especially positive punishment in the form of aversive stimulation, may evoke aggressive behavior with respondent and operant components.
Aggressive behavior following punishment that occurs because it has enabled the person to escape the aversive stimulation in the past is referred to as operant aggression.
Escape and Avoidance
Natural reactions to aversive stimulation
As the intensity of the punisher increases, so does the likelihood of escape and avoidance.
Can be minimized by providing alternative responses that come into contact with reinforcement and avoid the punisher.

18. Possible Side Effects and Problems with Punishment
Increased rate of the problem behavior under nonpunishment
Behavioral Contrast
Change in one component of a multiple schedule that increases or decreases the rate of responding on that component is accompanied by a change in the response rate in the opposite direction on the other, unaltered component of the schedule.

19. Possible Side Effects and Problems with Punishment
Modeling undesirable behavior
Punishment tactics may model undesirable behaviors.
2 decades of research have found strong correlation between young children’s exposure to harsh and excessive punishment and antisocial behavior and conduct disorders as adolescents and adults.
(Patterson, 1982; Patterson, Reid, & Dishion, 1992; Sprague & Walker, 2000).
Not teaching the learner what to do
Overusing punishment because of the negative reinforcement it provides the punishing agent.
Negative Reinforcement of the Punishing Agent’s Behavior
Punishment reinforces the punisher.
Punishment tends to terminate the punished behavior quickly. The punisher’s behavior tends to be negatively reinforced by the immediate cessation of the punished behavior.

20. Increasing the Effectiveness of Punishment
Begin with a moderately high-intensity stimulus
Do not begin with a mild punisher and slowly escalate the intensity (habituation might occur)
Deliver the event immediately following behavior
Deliver the event on an CRF schedule
Schedule thinning can occur after the response has been reduced

21. Thompson et al. (1999) Reinforce an alternative behavior Open = No SR+
Closed = SR+
No Punishment
Punishment

22. Examples of Positive Punishment Interventions
Reprimands
The delivery of verbal reprimands following the occurrence of misbehavior is an example of attempted positive punishment.
Reprimands given repeatedly may lead to the subject habituating to the stimulus
Response Blocking
Physically intervening as soon as the person begins to emit the problem behavior to prevent or “block” the completion of the response has been show to be effective in reducing the frequency of some problem behaviors.
Suppressive effects of response blocking may be due to punishment or to extinction.
Response blocking as a treatment intervention must be approached with great care.
Side effects such as aggression and resistance to the response blocking procedure have occurred in some studies.

23. Examples of Positive Punishment Interventions
Contingent Exercise
An intervention in which a person is required to perform a response that is not topographically related to the problem behavior.
Contingent Electric Stimulation
46 studies have demonstrated that contingent electric stimulation can be a safe and highly effective method for suppressing chronic and life- threatening self-injurious behavior (SIB).
Self Injurious Behavior Inhibiting System (SIBIS)
One of the most rigorously researched and carefully applied procedures for implementing punishment by electric stimulation for self-inflicted blows to the head or face.

24. Linscheid, Iwata, Ricketts, Williams, & Griffin, 1990

25. Guidelines for Using Punishment Effectively
Select Effective and Appropriate Punishers
Punishment as part of a behavior change program has nothing to do with retribution.
Punishment is not about threats.
When punishers are threatened and not delivered, the child learns that your verbal threats are not associated with the actual punishing behavior.
Conduct Punisher Assessments
Parallel process to a reinforcer assessment
Advantages:
1. The sooner an effective punisher can be identified, the sooner it can be applied to treat the problem behavior.
2. Data from punisher assessments might reveal the magnitude or intensity of punisher necessary for behavioral suppression. Allows practitioner to determine the smallest intensity of punisher that is still affective.
Consider Using Varied Punishers
Varying the form of the punishing stimulus enhanced the punishing effect.
It appears that by presenting a varied format of commonly used punishers, inappropriate behaviors may further decrease without the use of more intrusive punishment procedures.

26. Guidelines for Using Punishment Effectively
Use the Least Intensity of Punishment That is Effective
Ethical guidelines and the doctrine of the least restrictive alternative demand that the most effective, but least intrusive, form of punishment be used initially.
Questions to answer when deciding on a form of punishment:
Will this form of punishment suppress the behavior?
Will this form of punishment be controlled from application to application?
Punishment is more effective when the stimulus is delivered at its optimum level initially than when its intensity is gradually increased over time.

27. Guidelines for Using Punishment Effectively
Deliver the Punishment Immediately
Every instance of the inappropriate behavior should be punished.
Punishment affects most the behavior that immediately precedes the onset of punishment.
Deliver the Punishment at the Beginning of the Response Chain
As much as practical, punishment should occur early in the behavioral sequence rather than later. .
Experience the Punishment Personally
Practitioners should experience any punisher personally before the treatment begins
Doing to reminds the practitioner that the technique produces physical discomfort.

28. Guidelines for Using Punishment Effectively
Punish Each Instance of the Behavior
Punishment is most effective when the punisher follows each instance of the behavior.
Record, Graph and Evaluate Data Daily
Data collection in the first session or two of a punishment based intervention is especially critical.
Graphing the frequency of the target behavior before, during, and after the presentation of the punisher establishes the effectiveness of punishment
Deliver the Punishment Unemotionally
Punishment should be delivered in a business-like, matter-of-fact manner.
Resist statement such as, “I told you so.” “Now, you’ve gone and done i.” and “What do you have to say for yourself?”
All you want to do is modify behavior, not make people atone for their sins.

29. Guidelines for Using Punishment Effectively
Watch for Side Effects of Punishment
The suppression of one inappropriate behavior may lead to the increased expression of another or the complete suppression of all other behaviors.
Decreasing episodes of self-injurious behavior bay produce increased levels of verbal noncompliance
Expand observations to include collateral or parallel behaviors
Provide Response Prompts and Reinforcement for Alternative Behavior.
Punishment is most effective when the learner can make other responses for reinforcement.
The more reinforcement the learner obtains by emitting appropriate behavior, the less motivate he will be to emit the problem behavior.

30. Some Research to Consider
Positive punishment is sometimes necessary to reduce problem behavior
Hagopian et al. (1998) – Participants with DD who displayed problem behaviors with various functions
FCT alone was ineffective
FCT + EXT ineffective for over half of participants when they tried to thin the schedule of reinforcement
FCT + punishment produced a 90% or greater reduction in problem behavior even when schedule was thinned
Positive punishment may be less aversive than extinction
Hanley et al. (2005) allowed individuals to choose which intervention they preferred
FCT + Punishment was preferred to FCT + Extinction

31. Some Research to Consider
Modeled use of LRA and moving through the hierarchy
Rapp et al. (2001)
Treated a girl with pica – evaluated:
Noncontingent Reinforcement (food)
Blocking versus Mild reprimand
NCR + Blocking
Aversive tone

32. Rapp et al. (2001)

33. Concluding Perspectives
Recognizing Punishment's Natural and Necessary Role in Learning
Behavior analysts should not dismiss punishment as a potentially helpful option
Punishment is a natural part of life
Whether punishment is socially mediated, planned or unplanned, or conducted by sophisticated practitioners, Vollmer (1998) believed that a science of behavior should study punishment.

34. Concluding Perspectives
More Research on Punishment is Needed
Many recommendations for punishment are derived from basic research conducted more than 40 years ago.
Interventions Featuring Positive Punishment Should be Treated as Default Technologies
Iwata (1988) recommended that punishment-based intervention involving the contingent application of aversive stimulation, such as SIBIS, be treated as default technologies.
A default technology is one that a practitioner turns to when other methods have failed.

35. Punishment: By Stimulus Removal

36. Level III – Negative Punishment
An event is terminated immediately following a behavior  behavioral reduction
2 Types
Response cost: Loss of actual reinforcers to which the individual currently had access
e.g., loss of tokens
Time-out: Loss of access or opportunity to receive reinforcers contingent upon problem behavior
e.g., loss of access to Mom’s attention and cool toys around the house
Contraindicated for behaviors maintained by escape!

37. Adult places child in time out (peer attention is removed)
Example of Time Out EO
Child is participating in classroom buddy activities, where attention from peers (a positive reinforcer) is available. SD
Adult says, “Let’s open our books to page 12. Each of you should read the first paragraph to your buddy.”
Response
Child pokes his buddy
SR-
Adult places child in time out (peer attention is removed)
Poking a buddy occurs less often in the future when the teacher gives a classroom instruction and peer buddies are available.

38. Time-out Procedures Nonexclusion Exclusion Planned ignoring
Withdrawal of a specific positive reinforcer
Contingent observation
Time-out ribbon
Exclusion
Time-out room
Partition time-out
Hallway time-out

39. Effective Use of Time Out
Reinforce and enrich the time-in environment
Utilize differential reinforcement to reinforce alternative and incompatible behaviors
Clearly define the behaviors leading to time-out
All parties (including the target individual) should have explicit, observable definitions of the problem behavior

40. Effective Use of Time Out
Define procedures for the duration of time-out
Initial duration should be short
Longer than 15 minutes ineffective
After time out return student to activity he was previously engaged in (don’t “hold a grudge”)
Define exit criteria
If individual is misbehaving when time-out ends, it should be continued until inappropriate behavior ceases

41. Effective Use of Time Out
Exclusion vs. nonexclusion time-out
Consider institutional policies that may prevent exclusion time-out
Physical factors (i.e., lack of appropriate space) may prevent exclusion time-out
Explain time-out rules to the individual
Target behaviors, duration, exit criteria
Obtain permission
Administrative approvals
Parental approvals

42. Effective Use of Time Out
Apply consistently
Evaluate effectiveness
Target behavior should decrease
Track frequency and duration of time outs
Also track collateral behaviors for side effects
Consider other less intrusive procedures first
Consider legal and ethical issues

43. Example of Response Cost
Child has 15 minutes of recess on schedule every morning. SD
Adult says, “Let’s open our books to page 12. Each of you should read the first paragraph to your buddy.”
Response
Child pokes his buddy
SR-
5 minutes of the recess time is removed
Poking a buddy occurs less often in the future when the teacher gives a classroom instruction and recess is available.

44. Methods of Response Cost
Direct fine
Bonus response cost
The use of reinforcers reduce the legal and ethical concerns
Combined with positive reinforcement
Group arrangements

45. Effective Use of Response Cost
Specifically define the target behaviors that will result in response cost, as well as the fines
Establish rules for refusals to comply with the response-cost procedure, and explain these
Greater fines should be associated with more severe forms of problem behavior
Be cautious of making fines so great that the individual becomes “bankrupt”

46. Effective Use of Response Cost
Fines should be posed immediately
Response cost vs. bonus response cost
Use least aversive initially (bonus response cost)
Increases acceptability
Decreases emotional outbursts
Ensure reinforcement reserve (decrease likelihood of “bankruptcy”

47. Effective Use of Response Cost
Be prepared for unplanned or unexpected outcomes
Response cost can reinforce rather than punish undesirable behavior
Individuals can refuse to give up positive reinforcers
Avoid overuse
Keep records to evaluate effectiveness

48. Response Cost Considerations
Increased aggression may occur
Ignore emotional outbursts when possible
don’t use or be prepared to” ride out the storm”
Avoidance of the person who administers response cost or the setting may occur
These become “conditioned aversive stimuli”
Make sure positive reinforcement is available for appropriate behavior to reduce the likelihood of this outcome

49. Response Cost Considerations
Collateral reductions of desirable behaviors may occur
Response cost may unintentionally suppress other, desirable behaviors, as well as the target problem behaviors
Response cost calls attention to inappropriate behaviors
Be prepared for unpredictability