1. Individual Project Introduction to the Subject of the Project
Prepare income statements for a merchandising company using the traditional and contribution formats.
Learning objective number 5 is to prepare income statements for a merchandising company using the traditional and contribution formats.

2. Contribution Approach Income Statement
The contribution approach income statement organizes costs by behavior, first deducting variable expenses to obtain contribution margin, and then deducting fixed expenses to obtain net operating income.
The traditional approach organizes costs by function, such as production, selling, and administration. Within a functional area, fixed and variable costs are intermingled.
The contribution margin is total sales revenue less total variable expenses.

3. The Traditional and Contribution Formats
The contribution format allocates costs based on cost behavior. The contribution approach differs from the traditional approach illustrated in an earlier chapter.
The traditional approach organizes costs in a functional format. Costs relating to production, administration, and sales are grouped together without regard to their cost behavior.
The traditional approach is used primarily for external reporting purposes.
Used primarily for external reporting.
Used primarily by management.

4. Uses of the Contribution Format
The contribution income statement format is used as an internal planning and decision-making tool. We will use this approach for:
Cost-volume-profit analysis
Budgeting
Segmented reporting of profit data
Special decisions such as pricing and make-or-buy analysis
This approach is used as an internal planning and decision-making tool. For example, this approach is useful for and discussed further in Cost-volume-profit analysis (Chapter 5), Budgeting (Chapter 8), Segmented reporting of profit data (Chapter 6), Special decisions such as pricing and make or buy analysis (Chapter 12).

5. Review Questions T/F
1. Traditional format income statements are prepared primarily for external reporting purposes. 

6. Review Questions T/F
True

7. Review Questions T/F
2. In a contribution format income statement, sales minus cost of goods sold equals the gross margin. 

8. Review Questions T/F
False

9. Review Questions T/F
3. In a traditional format income statement for a merchandising company, the cost of goods sold reports the product costs attached to the merchandise sold during the period. 

10. Review Questions T/F
True

11. Review Questions T/F
4.Contribution format income statement is useful for external reporting purposes, it has serious limitations when used for internal purposes because it does not distinguish between fixed and variable costs. 

12. Review Questions T/F
False

13. Review Questions T/F
 5. In a contribution format income statement for a merchandising company, cost of goods sold is a variable cost that gets included in the "Variable expenses" portion of the income statement. 

14. Review Questions T/F
True

15. Review Questions T/F
6. The traditional format income statement is used as an internal planning and decision-making tool. Its emphasis on cost behavior aids cost-volume-profit analysis, management performance appraisals, and budgeting. 

16. Review Questions T/F
False

17. Review Questions M/C
7.When finished goods are sold, there is an increase in which of the following accounts?
A- Finished Goods Inventory
B- Cost of Goods Sold
C- Work-in-Process Inventory
D- Cost of Goods Manufactured

18. Review Questions M/C B

19. Explaining the Individual Project
Part 1: Summarize what a contribution format income statement depicts, as compared to the traditional format.
Please discuss

20. Explaining the Individual Project
Part 2: Using the following company data, show how the two income statement formats would look side by side.
Traditional- versus contribution-format statements are as follows:

21. Explaining the Individual Project

22. Explaining the Individual Project
Part 3: Explain why the contribution approach is more useful to project profits. As an example, show your calculations when using a projected sales increase of 20%.
Please discuss and make the following calculation

23. Explaining the Individual Project
Part 4: Using the following data, show how expected profits would be different if there was a sales increase of 10% and she used variable COGS of 50% vs. 60%. As an offset, this implies an increase in fixed COGS of $1,000,000.

24. WEEK 1 LECTURE
Cost Accounting and Cost Concepts

25. Learning Objectives
1-Identify and give examples of each of the three basic manufacturing cost categories.
2-Distinguish between product costs and period costs and give examples of each.
3-Understand cost behavior patterns including variable costs, fixed costs, and mixed costs.
4-Analyze a mixed cost using a scattergraph plot and the high-low method.
5- Prepare income statements for a merchandising company using the traditional and contribution formats.

26. Learning Objective
6-Understand the differences between direct and indirect costs.
7-Understand cost classifications used in making decisions: differential costs, opportunity costs, and sunk costs.

27. Classifications of Manufacturing Costs
Direct Materials
Direct Labor
Manufacturing Overhead
Manufacturing costs are usually grouped into three main categories: direct materials, direct labor, and manufacturing overhead. These costs are incurred to make a product.
The Product

28. Manufacturing Costs
Direct materials are an integral part of a finished product and their costs can be conveniently traced to it.
Indirect materials are generally small items of material such as glue and nails. They may be an integral part of a finished product but their costs can be traced to the product only at great cost or inconvenience.
Direct labor consists of labor costs that can be easily traced to particular products. Direct labor is also called “touch labor.”

29. Manufacturing Costs
Indirect labor consists of the labor costs of janitors, supervisors, materials handlers, and other factory workers that cannot be conveniently traced to particular products. These labor costs are incurred to support production, but the workers involved do not directly work on the product.
Manufacturing overhead includes all manufacturing costs except direct materials and direct labor.
Consequently, manufacturing overhead includes indirect materials and indirect labor as well as other manufacturing costs.

30. Learning Objective 1
Identify and give examples of each of the three basic manufacturing cost categories.
Learning objective number 1 is to identify and give examples of each of the three basic manufacturing cost categories.

31. Example of Direct Materials
Raw materials that become an integral part of the product and that can be conveniently traced directly to it.
Direct materials are raw materials that become an integral part of the finished product and whose costs can be conveniently traced to it. Examples include the aircraft engines on a Boeing 777, the Intel processing chip in a personal computer, the blank video cassette in a pre-recorded video, and a radio in an automobile.
Example: A radio installed in an automobile

32. Example of Direct Labor
Those labor costs that can be easily traced to individual units of product.
Direct labor consists of that portion of labor cost that can be easily traced to a product. Direct labor is sometimes referred to as “touch labor,” since it consists of the costs of workers who “touch” the product as it is being made.
Example: Wages paid to automobile assembly workers

33. Example of Manufacturing Overhead
Manufacturing costs that cannot be easily traced directly to specific units produced.
Examples: Indirect materials and indirect labor
Materials used to support the production process. Examples: lubricants and cleaning supplies used in the automobile assembly plant.
Wages paid to employees who are not directly involved in production work. Examples: maintenance workers, janitors, and security guards.
Manufacturing overhead includes all manufacturing costs except direct materials and direct labor. These costs cannot be easily traced to specific units produced (also called indirect manufacturing cost, factory overhead, and factory burden).
Manufacturing overhead includes indirect materials that are part of the finished product, but that cannot be easily traced to it. It includes indirect labor costs that cannot be conveniently traced to the creation of products.
Other examples of manufacturing overhead include: maintenance and repairs on production equipment, heat and light, property taxes, depreciation and insurance on manufacturing facilities, etc.

34. Example of Nonmanufacturing Costs
Selling Costs
Costs necessary to secure the order and deliver the product.
Administrative Costs
All executive, organizational, and clerical costs.
A manufacturing company incurs many other costs in addition to manufacturing costs. For financial reporting purposes, most of these other costs are typically classified as selling costs and administrative costs. These costs are also called selling, general and administrative costs, or SG&A. Selling and administrative costs are incurred in both manufacturing and merchandising firms.
Selling costs include all costs necessary to secure customer orders and get the finished product into the hands of the customer. These costs are also referred to as order-getting and order-filling costs. Examples of selling costs include advertising, shipping, sales travel, sales commissions, sales salaries, and costs of finished goods warehouses.
Administrative costs include all executive, organizational, and clerical costs associated with the general management of an organization. Examples of administrative costs include executive compensation, general accounting, secretarial, public relations, and similar costs involved in the overall general administration of the organization as a whole.

35. Review Questions T/F
1. Managerial accounting is primarily concerned with the organization as a whole rather than with segments of the organization.

36. Review Questions T/F
False

37. Review Questions T/F
2. Managerial accounting places less emphasis on nonmonetary data than financial accounting.

38. Review Questions T/F
False

39. Review Questions T/F
3. Direct labor is a part of both prime cost and conversion cost.

40. Review Questions T/F
True

41. Review Questions T/F
4. Direct material cost combined with manufacturing overhead cost is known as conversion cost. 

42. Review Questions T/F
False

43. Review Questions T/F
5. Wages paid to production supervisors would be considered direct labor. 

44. Review Questions T/F
False

45. Review Questions T/F
6. Advertising is a product cost as long as it promotes specific products. 

46. Review Questions T/F
False

47. Review Questions M/C
7. For a lamp manufacturing company, the cost of the insurance on its vehicles that deliver lamps to customers is best described as a:  A. prime cost. B. manufacturing overhead cost. C. period cost. D. differential (incremental) cost of a lamp.

48. Review Questions M/C
 C. period cost

49. Review Questions M/C
8. Manufacturing overhead consists of:  A. all manufacturing costs. B. indirect materials but not indirect labor. C. all manufacturing costs, except direct materials and direct labor. D. indirect labor but not indirect materials.

50. Review Questions M/C
 C. all manufacturing costs, except direct materials and direct labor.

51. Review Questions M/C
9. Which of the following costs would not be included as part of manufacturing overhead?  A. Insurance on sales vehicles. B. Depreciation of production equipment. C. Lubricants for production equipment. D. Direct labor overtime premium.

52. Review Questions M/C
A. Insurance on sales vehicles.

53. Review Questions M/C
10. Conversion cost consists of which of the following?  A. Manufacturing overhead cost. B. Direct materials and direct labor cost. C. Direct labor cost. D. Direct labor and manufacturing overhead cost.

54. Review Questions M/C
D. Direct labor and manufacturing overhead cost.

55. Learning Objective 2
Distinguish between product costs and period costs and give examples of each.
Learning objective number 2 is to distinguish between product costs and period costs and give examples of each.

56. Product Costs
The three major elements of product costs in a manufacturing company are
1.direct materials,
2.direct labor, and
3.manufacturing overhead.
A product cost is any cost involved in purchasing or manufacturing goods.
In the case of manufactured goods, these costs consist of direct materials, direct labor, and manufacturing overhead.
A period cost is a cost that is taken directly to the income statement as an expense in the period in which it is incurred.

57. Examples of Product Costs Versus Period Costs
Product costs include direct materials, direct labor, and manufacturing overhead.
Period costs include all selling costs and administrative costs.
Inventory
Cost of Good Sold
Balance Sheet
Income Statement
Sale
Expense
Income Statement
Costs can also be classified as product or period costs.
Product costs include all the costs that are involved in acquiring or making a product. More specifically, it includes direct materials, direct labor, and manufacturing overhead. Consistent with the matching principle, product costs are recognized as expenses when the products are sold. This can result in a delay of one or more periods between the time in which the cost is incurred and when it appears as an expense on the income statement. Product costs are also known as inventoriable costs. The discussion in the chapter follows the usual interpretation of GAAP in which all manufacturing costs are treated as product costs.
Period costs include all selling costs and administrative costs. These costs are expensed on the income statement in the period incurred. All selling and administrative costs are typically considered to be period costs. The usual rules of accrual accounting apply to period costs. For example, administrative salary costs are “incurred” when they are earned by the employees and not necessarily when they are paid to employees.

58. Classifications of Costs
Manufacturing costs are often classified as follows:
Direct Material
Direct Labor
Manufacturing Overhead
Prime Cost
Conversion Cost
Two more cost categories are often used in discussions of manufacturing costs—prime cost and conversion cost. Prime cost is the sum of direct materials cost and direct labor cost. Conversion cost is the sum of direct labor cost and manufacturing overhead cost. The term conversion cost is used to describe direct labor and manufacturing overhead because these costs are incurred to convert materials into the finished product.

59. Review Questions T/F
11. Although depreciation is always a period cost in a merchandising firm, it can be a product cost in a manufacturing firm. 

60. Review Questions T/F
True

61. Review Questions T/F
12. In a manufacturing firm, all costs are product costs. 

62. Review Questions T/F
False

63. Review Questions T/F
13. The cost of shipping parts from a supplier is considered a product cost. 

64. Review Questions T/F
True

65. Review Questions T/F
14.The costs of acquiring inventory are reported on the balance sheet as an asset labeled “inventory” and are expensed only when products are sold.

66. Review Questions T/F
True

67. Review Questions T/F
15.The cost of selling goods and administrative costs are reported on the income statement as expenses when inventory is sold.

68. Review Questions T/F
False – The cost of selling goods and administrative costs are reported on the income statement as expenses when they are incurred.

69. Review Questions T/F
16.Product costs are the costs related to inventory and period costs are the costs related to the selling and administrative functions.

70. Review Questions T/F
True

71. Review Questions T/F
17. Product costs are any costs that a company incurs to acquire raw materials and convert them to finished goods ready for sale.

72. Review Questions T/F
True

73. Review Questions M/C
18. The advertising costs that Pepsi incurred to air its commercials during the Super Bowl can best be described as a:  A. variable cost. B. fixed cost. C. product cost. D. prime cost.

74. Review Questions M/C
B. fixed cost.

75. Review Questions M/C
19. Each of the following would be a period cost except:  A. the salary of the company president's secretary. B. the cost of a general accounting office. C. depreciation of a machine used in manufacturing. D. sales commissions.

76. Review Questions M/C
C. depreciation of a machine used in manufacturing.

77. Review Questions M/C
20. Which of the following costs is an example of a period rather than a product cost?  A. Depreciation on production equipment. B. Wages of salespersons. C. Wages of production machine operators. D. Insurance on production equipment.

78. Review Questions M/C
 B. Wages of salespersons.

79. Review Questions M/C
21. Which of the following would be considered a product cost for external financial reporting purposes?  A. Cost of a warehouse used to store finished goods. B. Cost of guided public tours through the company's facilities. C. Cost of travel necessary to sell the manufactured product. D. Cost of sand spread on the factory floor to absorb oil from manufacturing machines.

80. Review Questions M/C
D. Cost of sand spread on the factory floor to absorb oil from manufacturing machines.

81. Review Questions M/C
22. Which of the following would NOT be treated as a product cost for external financial reporting purposes?  A. Depreciation on a factory building. B. Salaries of factory workers. C. Indirect labor in the factory. D. Advertising expenses.

82. Review Questions M/C
D. Advertising expenses.

83. Review Questions M/C
 23. The salary of the president of a manufacturing company would be classified as which of the following?  A. Product cost B. Period cost C. Manufacturing overhead D. Direct labor

84. Review Questions M/C
B. Period cost

85. Review Questions M/C
24. Conversion costs do NOT include:  A. depreciation. B. direct materials. C. indirect labor. D. indirect materials.

86. Review Questions M/C
B. direct materials.

87. Review Questions M/C

88. Review Questions M/C
Conversion costs during the month totaled:  A. $50,000 B. $59,000 C. $137,000 D. $67,000

89. Review Questions M/C
A. $50,000 Conversion cost = Direct labor + Manufacturing overhead = $29,000 + $21,000 = $50,000

90. Review Questions M/C

91. Review Questions M/C
Prime costs during the month totaled:  A. $79,000 B. $120,000 C. $62,000 D. $40,000

92. Review Questions M/C
C. $62,000 Prime cost = Direct materials + Direct labor = $39,000 + $23,000 = $62,000

93. Learning Objective 3
Understand cost behavior patterns including variable costs, fixed costs, and mixed costs.
Learning objective number 3 is to understand cost behavior patterns including variable costs, fixed costs, and mixed costs.

94. Cost Classifications for Predicting Cost Behavior
Cost behavior refers to how a cost will react to changes in the level of activity. The most common classifications are:
Variable costs.
Fixed costs
Mixed costs.
Quite frequently, it is necessary to predict how a certain cost will behave in response to a change in activity. For example, a manager may want to estimate the impact that a 5% increase in sales would have on the company’s total electric bill. Cost behavior refers to how a cost will react to changes in the level of activity within the relevant range. The most commonly used classifications of cost behavior are variable and fixed costs.

95. Your total texting bill is based on how many texts you send.
Variable Cost
Your total texting bill is based on how many texts you send.
Number of Texts Sent
Total Texting Bill
A variable cost varies, in total, in direct proportion to changes in the level of activity. For example, if you don’t have a texting plan on your cell phone, text messaging costs 5 cents per text. Your total texting bill increases with the number of texts you send.

96. The cost per text sent is constant at
Variable Cost Per Unit
The cost per text sent is constant at
5 cents per text message.
Number of Texts Sent
Cost Per Text Sent
Although variable costs change in total as the activity level rises and falls, variable cost per unit is constant. For example, the cost per text message sent is constant at 5 cents per text.

97. The Activity Base (Cost Driver)
Units produced
Machine hours
A measure of what causes the incurrence of a variable cost
An activity base (also called a cost driver) is a measure of what causes the incurrence of variable costs. As the level of the activity base increases, the total variable cost increases proportionally.
Units produced (or sold) is not the only activity base within companies. A cost can be considered variable if it varies with activity bases such as miles driven, machine hours, or labor hours.
Miles driven
Labor hours

98. Fixed Cost
Your monthly contract fee for your cell phone is fixed for the number of monthly minutes in your contract. The monthly contract fee does not change based on the number of calls you make.
Number of Minutes Used Within Monthly Plan
Monthly Cell Phone Contract Fee
A fixed cost is constant within the relevant range. In other words, fixed costs do not change for changes in activity that fall within the “relevant range.” For example, your monthly contract fee for your cell phone is a fixed amount for a certain number of minutes. The monthly contract fee does not change based on the number of calls you make.
Of course, if you go over your monthly minutes allotment, you have exceed the relevant range for your monthly contract and will be charged above and beyond your monthly contract fee.

99. Fixed Cost Per Unit
Within the monthly contract portion, the average fixed cost per cell phone call made decreases as more calls are made.
Number of Minutes Used Within Monthly Plan
Monthly Cell Phone Contract Fee
However, when expressed on a per unit basis, a fixed cost is inversely related to activity—the per unit cost decreases when activity rises and increases when activity falls. For example, the average fixed cost per cell phone call made decreases as more calls are made in the month.

100. Types of Fixed Costs Committed Discretionary Examples Examples
Long-term, cannot be significantly reduced in the short term.
Discretionary
May be altered in the short-term by current managerial decisions
One type of fixed cost is known as committed fixed costs. These are long-term fixed costs that cannot be significantly reduced in the short term. Some examples include depreciation on buildings and equipment and real estate taxes on factory property.
Another type of fixed cost is known as discretionary fixed costs. These fixed costs may be altered in the short-term by current management decisions. Some examples of discretionary fixed costs include advertising and research and development costs.
A cost may be discretionary or committed depending upon management’s strategy. For example, some construction companies may layoff workers during months with minimal customer demand. However, other construction companies may opt to retain their workers all year.
Examples
Depreciation on Buildings and Equipment and Real Estate Taxes
Examples
Advertising and Research and Development

101. Fixed Costs and the Relevant Range
For example, assume office space is available at a rental rate of $30,000 per year in increments of 1,000 square feet.
Fixed costs would increase in a step fashion at a rate of $30,000 for each additional 1,000 square feet.
For example, assume office space is available at a rental rate of $30,000 per year in increments of 1,000 square feet.
Fixed costs would increase in a step fashion at a rate of $30,000 for each additional 1,000 square feet.

102. Relevant range
The relevant range is the range of activity within which assumptions about variable and fixed cost behavior are valid.
It is the range where the fixed cost remains constant.

103. Cost Classifications for Predicting Cost Behavior
It is helpful to think about variable and fixed cost behavior in a 2 by 2 matrix, as illustrated here. Take a few minutes and review this summary of cost behavior for variable and fixed costs.

104. Mixed Costs Mixed Costs (also called semivariable costs).
A mixed cost contains both variable and fixed elements.
Consider the example of utility cost.

105. Mixed Costs
The mixed cost line can be expressed with the equation Y = a + bX. This equation should look familiar, from your algebra and statistics classes.
In the equation, Y is the total mixed cost; a is the total fixed cost (or the vertical intercept of the line); b is the variable cost per unit of activity (or the slope of the line), and X is the actual level of activity.
In our utility example, Y is the total mixed cost; a is the total fixed monthly utility charge; b is the cost per kilowatt hour consumed, and X is the number of kilowatt hours consumed.

106. Mixed Costs – An Example
If your fixed monthly utility charge is $40, your variable cost is $0.03 per kilowatt hour, and your monthly activity level is 2,000 kilowatt hours, what is the amount of your utility bill?
Y = a + bX
Y = $40 + ($0.03 × 2,000)
Y =
$100
Read through this short question to see if you can calculate the total utility bill for the month.
The total bill is $100. How did you do?

107. Review Questions T/F
27. Differential costs can be either fixed or variable. 

108. Review Questions T/F
True

109. Review Questions T/F
28. A fixed cost is constant per unit of product. 

110. Review Questions T/F
False

111. Review Questions T/F
 29. The variable cost per unit is constant and does not depend on how many units are produced. 

112. Review Questions T/F
True

113. Review Questions T/F
30. The cost of napkins put on each person's tray at a fast food restaurant is a fixed cost. 

114. Review Questions T/F
False

115. Review Questions T/F
31. Direct material costs are generally variable costs. 

116. Review Questions T/F
True

117. Review Questions T/F
 32. Property taxes and insurance premiums paid on a factory building are examples of manufacturing overhead. 

118. Review Questions T/F
True

119. Review Questions T/F
 33. Manufacturing overhead combined with direct materials is known as conversion cost. 

120. Review Questions T/F
False

121. Review Questions T/F
34. All costs incurred in a merchandising firm are considered to be period costs. 

122. Review Questions T/F
False   

123. Review Questions T/F
35. Depreciation is always considered a product cost for external financial reporting purposes in a manufacturing firm. 

124. Review Questions T/F
False 

125. Review Questions T/F
36. Selling and administrative expenses are product costs under generally accepted accounting principles.

126. Review Questions T/F
False

127. Review Questions T/F
37. A variable cost is a cost whose cost per unit varies as the activity level rises and falls. 

128. Review Questions T/F
False

129. Review Questions T/F
38. When the level of activity increases, total variable cost will increase. 

130. Review Questions T/F
True

131. Review Questions T/F
39. A decrease in production will ordinarily result in an increase in fixed production costs per unit. 

132. Review Questions T/F
True

133. Review Questions M/C
40. Variable cost:  A. increases on a per unit basis as the number of units produced increases. B. remains constant on a per unit basis as the number of units produced increases. C. remains the same in total as production increases. D. decreases on a per unit basis as the number of units produced increases.

134. Review Questions M/C
 B. remains constant on a per unit basis as the number of units produced increases.

135. Review Questions M/C
41. Which of the following statements regarding fixed costs is incorrect? A. Expressing fixed costs on a per unit basis usually is the best approach for decision making. B. Fixed costs expressed on a per unit basis will decrease with increases in activity. C. Total fixed costs are constant within the relevant range. D. Fixed costs expressed on a per unit basis will increase with decreases in activity.

136. Review Questions M/C
A. Expressing fixed costs on a per unit basis usually is the best approach for decision making.

137. Review Questions M/C
42. The salary paid to the production manager in a factory is:  A. a variable cost. B. part of prime cost. C. part of conversion cost. D. both a variable cost and a prime cost.

138. Review Questions M/C
 C. part of conversion cost.

139. Review Questions M/C
43. Within the relevant range, variable cost per unit will:  A. increase as the level of activity increases. B. remain constant. C. decrease as the level of activity increases. D. none of these.

140. Review Questions M/C
 B. remain constant.

141. Review Questions M/C
44. The term "relevant range" means the range of activity over which: A. relevant costs are incurred. B. costs may fluctuate. C. production may vary. D. the assumptions about fixed and variable cost behavior are reasonably valid.

142. Review Questions M/C
D. the assumptions about fixed and variable cost behavior are reasonably valid.

143. Review Questions M/C
45. An example of a committed fixed cost is:  A. a training program for salespersons. B. executive travel expenses. C. property taxes on the factory building. D. new product research and development.

144. Review Questions M/C
C. property taxes on the factory building.

145. Review Questions M/C
46. In describing the cost formula equation Y = a + bX, which of the following statements is correct?  A. "X" is the dependent variable. B. "a" is the fixed component. C. In the high-low method, "b" equals change in activity divided by change in costs. D. As "X" increases "Y" decreases.

146. Review Questions M/C
B. "a" is the fixed component.

147. Analyze a mixed cost using the high-low method.
Learning Objective 4
Analyze a mixed cost using the high-low method.
Learning objective number 4 is to analyze a mixed cost using a scattergraph plot and the high-low method.

148. The High-Low Method
The high-low method uses only two points to determine a cost formula. These two points are likely to be less than typical because they represent extremes of activity.
The formula for a mixed cost is Y = a + bX.
In cost analysis, the “a” term represents the fixed cost and the “b” term represents the variable cost per unit of activity.

149. The High-Low Method – An Example
The variable cost per hour of maintenance is equal to the change in cost divided by the change in hours.
The first step is to choose the data points pertaining to the highest and lowest activity levels. In this case, the high level of activity was in June at 850 hours of maintenance and the low level of activity is in February with 450 hours of maintenance. Notice that this method relies upon two data points to estimate the fixed and variable portions of a mixed cost, as opposed to one data point with the scattergraph method.
The second step is to determine the total costs associated with the two chosen points. We incurred costs of $9,800 at the high level of activity and $7,400 at the low level of activity.
The third step is to calculate the change in cost between the two data points. The change in maintenance hours was 400 hours and the change in maintenance dollars was $2,400. Notice, this method relies upon two data points to estimate the fixed and variable portions of a mixed costs, as opposed to one data point with the scattergraph method.
For this example, we divide $2,400 by 400 and determine that the variable cost per hour of maintenance is $6.00.
= $6.00/hour
$2,

150. The High-Low Method – An Example
Total Fixed Cost = Total Cost – Total Variable Cost
The fourth step is to take the total cost at either activity level (in this case, $9,800).
Deduct the variable cost component ($6 per hour times 850 hours) for the total cost of $5,100.
The difference represents the estimate of total fixed costs ($4,700).
Total Fixed Cost = $9,800 – ($6/hour × 850 hours)
Total Fixed Cost = $9,800 – $5,100
Total Fixed Cost = $4,700

151. The High-Low Method – An Example
The fifth step is to construct an equation that can be used to estimate the total cost at any activity level (Y = $4,700 + $6.00X). The basic equation of Y is equal to $4,700 (the total fixed cost) plus $6 times the actual level of activity.
You can verify the equation by calculating total maintenance costs at 450 hours, the low level of activity. It will be worth your time to make the calculation.
Y = $4,700 + $6.00X
The Cost Equation for Maintenance

152. Review Questions M/C

153. Review Questions M/C
Using the high-low method, the cost formula for utilities is:  A. $1.50 per unit B. $1.20 per unit C. $3,000 plus $3.00 per unit D. $4,500 plus $0.75 per unit

154. Review Questions M/C
D. $4,500 plus $0.75 per unit

155. Review Questions M/C

156. Review Questions M/C

157. Review Questions M/C
The best estimate of the total month 1 variable cost for cleaning and maintenance is:  A. $300 B. $500 C. $800 D. $100

158. Review Questions M/C C. $800
Cleaning and maintenance Variable cost per unit = Change in cost  Change in activity = ($1,100 - $900)  (2,500 units - 2,000 units) = $200  500 units = $0.40 per unit Total variable cost at 22,000 units = 2,000 units  $0.40 per unit = $800

159. Review Questions M/C

160. Review Questions M/C
Assuming that these activity levels are within the relevant range, the mixed cost for July was:  A. $10,000 B. $35,000 C. $15,000 D. $40,000

161. Review Questions M/C
C. $15,000 Variable cost per unit = $20,000  10,000 units = $2 per unit Total variable cost in July = $2 per unit  20,000 units = $40,000 per unit Fixed cost = $15,000 (given) Total cost = Variable cost + Fixed cost + Mixed cost $70,000 = $40,000 + $15,000 + Mixed cost Mixed cost = $70,000 - ($40,000 + $15,000) = $70,000 - $55,000 = $15,000

162. Review Questions M/C
 50. At an activity level of 9,200 machine-hours in a month, Nooner Corporation's total variable production engineering cost is $761,300 and its total fixed production engineering cost is $154,008. What would be the total production engineering cost per unit, both fixed and variable, at an activity level of 9,300 machine-hours in a month? Assume that this level of activity is within the relevant range.  A. $98.42 B. $99.49 C. $99.31 D. $98.96

163. Review Questions M/C
C. $99.31 Variable cost per unit = $761,300  9,200 units = $82.75 per unit Fixed cost per unit at 9,300 units = $154,008  9,300 units = $16.56 per unit Total cost = Variable cost + Fixed cost = $82.75 per unit + $16.56 per unit = $99.31 per unit

164. Review Questions M/C
 51. At an activity level of 4,400 units in a month, Goldbach Corporation's total variable maintenance and repair cost is $313,632 and its total fixed maintenance and repair cost is $93,104. What would be the total maintenance and repair cost, both fixed and variable, at an activity level of 4,600 units in a month? Assume that this level of activity is within the relevant range.  A. $420,992 B. $425,224 C. $415,980 D. $406,736

165. Review Questions M/C
A. $420,992 Variable cost per unit = $313,632  4,400 units = $71.28 unit Total cost = Total fixed cost + Total variable cost = $93,104 + $71.28 per unit  4,600 units = $93,104 + $327,888 = $420,992

166. Review Questions M/C

167. Review Questions M/C
52. Using the high-low method, the estimate of the variable component of inspection cost per unit produced is closest to:  A. $3.15 B. $0.32 C. $3.40 D. $13.91

168. Review Questions M/C
A. $3.15

169. Review Questions M/C

170. Review Questions M/C
53. Using the high-low method, the estimate of the fixed component of inspection cost per month is closest to:  A. $8,743 B. $8,887 C. $8,683 D. $6,869

171. Review Questions M/C
D. $6,869

172. Review Questions M/C

173. Review Questions M/C
Variable cost per unit = Change in cost  Change in activity = $293  93 units = $3.15 per unit Total fixed cost = Total cost - Variable cost element = $9,036 - ($3.15 per unit  688 units) = $9,036 - $2,167 = $6,869

174. Review Questions M/C

175. Review Questions M/C
Management believes that office expense is a mixed cost that depends on the number of escrows completed. Note: Real estate purchases usually involve the services of an escrow agent that holds funds and prepares documents to complete the transaction.
 54. Using the high-low method, the estimate of the variable component of office expense per escrow completed is closest to:  A. $ B. $59.12 C. $17.11 D. $17.15

176. Review Questions M/C
C. $17.11

177. Review Questions M/C

178. Review Questions M/C
55. Using the high-low method, the estimate of the fixed component of office expense per month is closest to:  A. $6,692 B. $8,064 C. $7,376 D. $7,720

179. Review Questions M/C
A. $6,692

180. Review Questions M/C

181. Learning Objective 5
Prepare income statements for a merchandising company using the traditional and contribution formats.
Learning objective number 5 is to prepare income statements for a merchandising company using the traditional and contribution formats.

182. Contribution Approach Income Statement
The contribution approach income statement organizes costs by behavior, first deducting variable expenses to obtain contribution margin, and then deducting fixed expenses to obtain net operating income.
The traditional approach organizes costs by function, such as production, selling, and administration. Within a functional area, fixed and variable costs are intermingled.
The contribution margin is total sales revenue less total variable expenses.

183. The Traditional and Contribution Formats
The contribution format allocates costs based on cost behavior. The contribution approach differs from the traditional approach illustrated in an earlier chapter.
The traditional approach organizes costs in a functional format. Costs relating to production, administration, and sales are grouped together without regard to their cost behavior.
The traditional approach is used primarily for external reporting purposes.
Used primarily for external reporting.
Used primarily by management.

184. Uses of the Contribution Format
The contribution income statement format is used as an internal planning and decision-making tool. We will use this approach for:
Cost-volume-profit analysis
Budgeting
Segmented reporting of profit data
Special decisions such as pricing and make-or-buy analysis
This approach is used as an internal planning and decision-making tool. For example, this approach is useful for and discussed further in Cost-volume-profit analysis (Chapter 5), Budgeting (Chapter 8), Segmented reporting of profit data (Chapter 6), Special decisions such as pricing and make or buy analysis (Chapter 12).

185. Review Questions T/F
56. Traditional format income statements are prepared primarily for external reporting purposes. 

186. Review Questions T/F
True

187. Review Questions T/F
57. In a contribution format income statement, sales minus cost of goods sold equals the gross margin. 

188. Review Questions T/F
False

189. Review Questions T/F
58. In a traditional format income statement for a merchandising company, the cost of goods sold reports the product costs attached to the merchandise sold during the period. 

190. Review Questions T/F
True

191. Review Questions T/F
59.Contribution format income statement is useful for external reporting purposes, it has serious limitations when used for internal purposes because it does not distinguish between fixed and variable costs. 

192. Review Questions T/F
False

193. Review Questions T/F
 60. In a contribution format income statement for a merchandising company, cost of goods sold is a variable cost that gets included in the "Variable expenses" portion of the income statement. 

194. Review Questions T/F
True

195. Review Questions T/F
61. The traditional format income statement is used as an internal planning and decision-making tool. Its emphasis on cost behavior aids cost-volume-profit analysis, management performance appraisals, and budgeting. 

196. Review Questions T/F
False

197. Review Questions M/C
62. Haar Inc. is a merchandising company. Last month the company's cost of goods sold was $61,000. The company's beginning merchandise inventory was $11,000 and its ending merchandise inventory was $21,000. What was the total amount of the company's merchandise purchases for the month?  A. $61,000 B. $51,000 C. $71,000 D. $93,000

198. Review Questions M/C
C. $71,000

199. Review Questions M/C
Purchases = Cost of goods sold + Ending merchandise inventory - Beginning merchandise inventory = $61,000 + $21,000 - $11,000 = $71,000

200. Review Questions M/C
63.When finished goods are sold, there is an increase in which of the following accounts?
A- Finished Goods Inventory
B- Cost of Goods Sold
C- Work-in-Process Inventory
D- Cost of Goods Manufactured

201. Review Questions M/C B

202. Review Questions M/C
64. Gabruk Inc. is a merchandising company. Last month the company's merchandise purchases totaled $88,000. The company's beginning merchandise inventory was $15,000 and its ending merchandise inventory was $13,000. What was the company's cost of goods sold for the month?  A. $88,000 B. $90,000 C. $86,000 D. $116,000

203. Review Questions M/C
B. $90,000 Cost of goods sold = Beginning merchandise inventory + purchases - Ending merchandise inventory = $15,000 + $88,000 - $13,000 = $90,000
  A partial listing of costs incurred during December at Gagnier Corporation appears below:

204. Review Questions M/C

205. Review Questions M/C
 65. The total of the period costs listed above for December is:  A. $89,000 B. $310,000 C. $325,000
D. $399,000

206. Review Questions M/C
B. $310,000 Period costs = Administrative wages and salaries + Sales staff salaries + Corporate headquarters building rent + Marketing = $105,000 + $68,000 + $34,000 + $103,000 = $310,000

207. Review Questions M/C
66. The total of the manufacturing overhead costs listed above for December is:  A. $325,000 B. $635,000 C. $89,000 D. $40,000

208. Review Questions M/C
C. $89,000 Manufacturing overhead costs = Factory supplies + Factory depreciation + Indirect labor = $8,000 + $49,000 + $32,000 = $89,000

209. Review Questions M/C
67. The total of the product costs listed above for December is:  A. $310,000 B. $89,000 C. $635,000 D. $325,000

210. Review Questions M/C
D-Product costs = Direct materials + Direct labor + Manufacturing overhead = $153,000 + $83,000 + $89,000 = $325,000

211. Understand the differences between direct and indirect costs.
Learning Objective 6
Understand the differences between direct and indirect costs.
Learning objective number 6 is to understand the differences between direct and indirect costs.

212. Assigning Costs to Cost Objects
Direct costs
Costs that can be easily and conveniently traced to a unit of product or other cost object.
Examples: direct material and direct labor
Indirect costs
Costs that cannot be easily and conveniently traced to a unit of product or other cost object.
Example: manufacturing overhead
A cost object is anything for which cost data are desired including products, customers, jobs, organizational subunits, etc. For purposes of assigning costs to cost objects, costs are classified two ways:
Direct costs are costs that can be easily and conveniently traced to a specified cost object. Examples of direct costs are direct material and direct labor.
Indirect costs are costs that cannot be easily and conveniently traced to a specified cost object. An example of an indirect cost is manufacturing overhead. Common costs are indirect costs incurred to support a number of cost objects. These costs cannot be traced to any individual cost object.

213. Direct and Indirect Costs Examples – Hotel Business

214. Review Questions M/C

215. Review Questions M/C
The Northridge Store is just one of many stores owned and operated by the company. The Cosmetics Department is one of many departments at the Northridge Store. The central warehouse serves all of the company's stores. 
68. What is the total amount of the costs listed above that are direct costs of the Cosmetics Department?  A. $74,000 B. $36,000 C. $31,000 D. $40,000

216. Review Questions M/C
D. $40,000

217. Review Questions M/C
Direct costs of the Cosmetics Department = Cosmetics Department sales commissions + Cosmetics Department cost of sales + Cosmetics Department manager's salary = $5,000 + $31,000 + $4,000 = $40,000

218. Review Questions M/C
69. What is the total amount of the costs listed above that are NOT direct costs of the Northridge Store?  A. $40,000 B. $34,000 C. $141,000 D. $78,000

219. Review Questions M/C
C. $141,000 Costs that are not direct costs of the Northridge Store = Corporate headquarters building lease + Corporate legal office salaries + Central warehouse lease cost = $78,000 + $57,000 + $6,000 = $141,000

220. Review Questions M/C

221. Review Questions M/C
The Brentwood Store is just one of many stores owned and operated by the company. The Shoe Department is one of many departments at the Brentwood Store. The central warehouse serves all of the company's stores. 

222. Review Questions M/C
70. What is the total amount of the costs listed above that are direct costs of the Shoe Department?  A. $80,000 B. $88,000 C. $130,000 D. $92,000

223. Review Questions M/C
D. Direct costs of the Shoe Department = Shoe Department cost of sales + Shoe Department sales commissions + Shoe Department manager's salary = $80,000 + $8,000 + $4,000 = $92,000

224. Review Questions M/C
71. What is the total amount of the costs listed above that are NOT direct costs of the Brentwood Store?  A. $152,000 B. $92,000 C. $79,000 D. $38,000

225. Review Questions M/C
A-Costs that are not direct costs of the Brentwood Store = Corporate legal office salaries + Corporate headquarters building lease + Central warehouse lease cost A= $62,000 + $79,000 + $11,000 = $152,000

226. Learning Objective 7
Understand cost classifications used in making decisions: differential costs, opportunity costs, and sunk costs.
Learning objective number 7 is to understand cost classifications used in making decisions: differential costs, opportunity costs, and sunk costs.

227. Cost Classifications for Decision Making
Every decision involves a choice between at least two alternatives.
Only those costs and benefits that differ between alternatives are relevant in a decision. All other costs and benefits can and should be ignored as irrelevant.
It is important to realize that every decision involves a choice between at least two alternatives. The goal of making decisions is to identify those costs that are either relevant or irrelevant to the decision. Costs and benefits that differ between alternatives are relevant in a decision. All other costs and benefits are irrelevant and can and should be ignored. To make decisions, it is essential to have a grasp on three concepts: differential costs, opportunity costs, and sunk costs.

228. Differential Cost and Revenue
Costs and revenues that differ among alternatives.
Example: You have a job paying $1,500 per month in your hometown. You have a job offer in a neighboring city that pays $2,000 per month. The commuting cost to the city is $300 per month.
Differential costs (or incremental costs) is a difference in cost between any two alternatives. Differential costs can be either fixed or variable. A difference in revenue between two alternatives is called differential revenue.
For example, assume you have a job paying $1,500 per month in your hometown. You have a job offer in a neighboring city that pays $2,000 per month. The commuting cost to the city is $300 per month. In this example, the differential revenue is $500 and the differential cost is $300.
Differential revenue is:
$2,000 – $1,500 = $500
Differential cost is:
$300

229. Opportunity Cost
The potential benefit that is given up when one alternative is selected over another.
Example: If you were not attending college, you could be earning $15,000 per year. Your opportunity cost of attending college for one year is $15,000.
Opportunity cost is the potential benefit that is given up when one alternative is selected over another. These costs are not usually entered into the accounting records of an organization, but must be explicitly considered in all decisions.

230. Sunk Costs
Sunk costs have already been incurred and cannot be changed now or in the future. These costs should be ignored when making decisions.
Example: Suppose you had purchased gold for $400 an ounce, but now it is selling for $250 an ounce. Should you wait for the gold to reach $400 an ounce before selling it? You may say, “Yes” even though the $400 purchase is a sunk costs.
A sunk cost is a cost that has already been incurred and that cannot be changed by any decision made now or in the future. Since sunk costs cannot be changed and therefore cannot be differential costs, they should be ignored in decision making. While students usually accept the idea that sunk costs should be ignored on an abstract level, like most people, they often have difficulty putting this idea into practice.

231. Review Questions T/F
72. Automation results in a shift away from variable costs toward more fixed costs. 

232. Review Questions T/F
True

233. Review Questions T/F
 73. In order for a cost to be variable it must vary with either units produced or units sold. 

234. Review Questions T/F
False

235. Review Questions T/F
 74. The concept of the relevant range does not apply to fixed costs. 

236. Review Questions T/F
False

237. Review Questions T/F
 75. Indirect costs, such as manufacturing overhead, are always fixed costs. 

238. Review Questions T/F
False

239. Review Questions T/F
76. Discretionary fixed costs arise from annual decisions by management to spend in certain fixed cost areas. 

240. Review Questions T/F
True

241. Review Questions T/F
 77. Even if operations are interrupted or cut back, committed fixed costs remain largely unchanged in the short term because the costs of restoring them later are likely to be far greater than any short-run savings that might be realized. 

242. Review Questions T/F
True

243. Review Questions T/F
78. Committed fixed costs are fixed costs that are not controllable. 

244. Review Questions T/F
False

245. Review Questions T/F
79.  mixed cost is partially variable and partially fixed. 

246. Review Questions T/F
True

247. Review Questions M/C
Temblador Corporation purchased a machine 7 years ago for $319,000 when it launched product E26T. Unfortunately, this machine has broken down and cannot be repaired. The machine could be replaced by a new model 330 machine costing $323,000 or by a new model 230 machine costing $285,000. Management has decided to buy the model 230 machine. It has less capacity than the model 330 machine, but its capacity is sufficient to continue making product E26T.

248. Review Questions M/C
Management also considered, but rejected, the alternative of dropping product E26T and not replacing the old machine. If that were done, the $285,000 invested in the new machine could instead have been invested in a project that would have returned a total of $386,000.

249. Review Questions M/C
 80. In making the decision to buy the model 230 machine rather than the model 330 machine, the differential cost was:  A. $34,000 B. $38,000 C. $4,000 D. $67,000

250. Review Questions M/C B. $38,000
Differential cost = $323,000 - $285,000 = $38,000

251. Review Questions M/C
81. In making the decision to buy the model 230 machine rather than the model 330 machine, the sunk cost was:  A. $319,000 B. $386,000 C. $285,000 D. $323,000

252. Review Questions M/C
A. $319,000 The $319,000 cost of the old machine is a sunk cost.

253. Review Questions M/C
82. In making the decision to invest in the model 230 machine, the opportunity cost was:  A. $386,000 B. $319,000 C. $285,000 D. $323,000

254. Review Questions M/C
A. $386,000 The $386,000 return from alternative investment is an opportunity cost.