1. Managerial Accounting and Cost Concepts
Chapter 2: Managerial Accounting and Cost Concepts.
This chapter explains the differences and similarities between financial and managerial accounting. It also explains how managers need to rely upon different classifications of costs for different purposes. The four main purposes emphasized in this chapter include preparing external financial reports, predicting cost behavior, assigning costs to cost objects, and making business decisions.

2. Directing and Motivating
1-2
Work of Management
Planning
Directing and Motivating
Controlling
Managers carry out three main activities – planning, directing and motivating, and controlling.

3. Planning Identify alternatives.
1-3
Planning
Identify alternatives.
Select alternative that does the best job of furthering organization’s objectives.
Develop budgets to guide progress toward the selected alternative.
An important part of planning is to identify alternatives and then to select from among the alternatives the one that does the best job of furthering the organization’s objectives. Once alternatives have been identified, the plans of management are often expressed formally in budgets. Budgets are usually prepared under the direction of the controller, who is the manager in charge of the accounting department. Typically, budgets are prepared annually.

4. Directing and Motivating
1-4
Directing and Motivating
Directing and motivating involves managing day-to-day activities to keep the organization running smoothly.
Employee work assignments.
Routine problem solving.
Conflict resolution.
Effective communications.
In addition to planning for the future, managers must oversee day-to-day activities to keep the organization functioning smoothly. Managerial accounting data, such as daily sales reports, are often used in this type of day-to-day decision making.

5. The control function ensures that plans are being followed.
1-5
Controlling
The control function ensures that plans are being followed.
Feedback in the form of performance reports that compare actual results with the budget are an essential part of the control function.
In carrying out the control function, managers seek to ensure that the plan is being followed. Feedback, which signals whether operations are on track, is the key to effective control. A performance report compares budgeted to actual results. It suggests where operations are not proceeding as planned and where some parts of the organization may require additional attention.

6. Planning and Control Cycle
1-6
Planning and Control Cycle
Formulating long-and short-term plans (Planning)
Begin
Comparing actual to planned performance (Controlling)
Implementing plans (Directing and Motivating)
Decision Making
The work of management, which is known as the planning and control cycle, can be depicted as shown. The process is a continuous loop in many organizations. Once plans are made, they are implemented. The controlling process starts with measuring actual performance and then comparing those results with planned performance. Corrective action may be necessary if actual results differ significantly from the plan. In some cases, new information may result in altering the plan before the cycle is repeated. Note that decision making is involved in all management activities.
Measuring performance (Controlling)

7. 1-7
Learning Objective 1
Identify the major differences and similarities between financial and managerial accounting.
Learning objective number 1 is to identify the major differences and similarities between financial and managerial accounting.

8. Comparison of Financial and Managerial Accounting
1-8
Comparison of Financial and Managerial Accounting
There are seven key differences between managerial accounting and financial accounting:
 Users: Financial accounting reports are prepared for external parties, whereas managerial accounting reports are prepared for internal users.
 Emphasis on the future: Financial accounting summarizes past transactions. Managerial accounting has a strong future orientation.
 Relevance of data: Financial accounting data should be objective and verifiable. Managerial accountants focus on providing relevant data even if these data are not completely objective and verifiable.
 Less emphasis on precision: Financial accounting focuses on precision when reporting to external parties. Managerial accounting aids decision makers by providing good estimates as soon as possible rather than waiting for precise data later.
 Segments of an organization: Financial accounting is concerned with reporting for the company as a whole. Managerial accounting focuses more on the segments of the company. Examples of segments include: product lines, sales territories, divisions, departments, etc..
 Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP): Financial accounting conforms to GAAP. Managerial accounting is not bound by GAAP.
 Managerial accounting – not mandatory: Financial accounting is mandatory because various outside parties require periodic financial statements. Managerial accounting is not mandatory.

9. 3-9
Learning Objective 2
Identify and give examples of each of the three basic manufacturing cost categories.
Learning objective number 2 is to identify and give examples of each of the three basic manufacturing cost categories.

10. Manufacturing Overhead
3-10
Manufacturing Costs
Direct Materials
Direct Labor
Manufacturing Overhead
Manufacturing costs are usually grouped into three main categories: direct materials, direct labor, and manufacturing overhead. These costs are incurred to make a product.
The Product

11. Example: A radio installed in an automobile
3-11
Direct Materials
Raw materials that become an integral part of the product and that can be conveniently traced directly to it.
Direct materials are raw materials that become an integral part of the finished product and whose costs can be conveniently traced to it. Examples include the aircraft engines on a Boeing 777, the Intel processing chip in a personal computer, the blank video cassette in a pre-recorded video, and a radio in an automobile.
Example: A radio installed in an automobile

12. Example: Wages paid to automobile assembly workers
3-12
Direct Labor
Those labor costs that can be easily traced to individual units of product.
Direct labor consists of that portion of labor cost that can be easily traced to a product. Direct labor is sometimes referred to as “touch labor,” since it consists of the costs of workers who “touch” the product as it is being made.
Example: Wages paid to automobile assembly workers

13. Manufacturing Overhead
3-13
Manufacturing Overhead
Manufacturing costs that cannot be traced directly to specific units produced.
Examples: Indirect materials and indirect labor
Materials used to support the production process. Examples: lubricants and cleaning supplies used in the automobile assembly plant.
Wages paid to employees who are not directly involved in production work. Examples: maintenance workers, janitors and security guards.
Manufacturing overhead includes all manufacturing costs except direct materials and direct labor. These costs cannot be easily traced to specific units produced (also called indirect manufacturing cost, factory overhead, and factory burden).
Manufacturing overhead includes indirect materials that are part of the finished product, but that cannot be easily traced to it. It includes indirect labor costs that cannot be conveniently traced to the creation of products.
Other examples of manufacturing overhead include: maintenance and repairs on production equipment, heat and light, property taxes, depreciation and insurance on manufacturing facilities, etc.

14. Nonmanufacturing Costs
3-14
Nonmanufacturing Costs
Selling Costs
Costs necessary to secure the order and deliver the product.
Administrative Costs
All executive, organizational, and clerical costs.
A manufacturing company incurs many other costs in addition to manufacturing costs. For financial reporting purposes, most of these other costs are typically classified as selling costs and administrative costs. These costs are also called selling, general and administrative costs, or SG&A. Selling and administrative costs are incurred in both manufacturing and merchandising firms.
Selling costs include all costs necessary to secure customer orders and get the finished product into the hands of the customer. These costs are also referred to as order-getting and order-filling costs. Examples of selling costs include advertising, shipping, sales travel, sales commissions, sales salaries, and costs of finished goods warehouses.
Administrative costs include all executive, organizational, and clerical costs associated with the general management of an organization. Examples of administrative costs include executive compensation, general accounting, secretarial, public relations, and similar costs involved in the overall general administration of the organization as a whole.

15. 3-15
Learning Objective 3
Distinguish between product costs and period costs and give examples of each.
Learning objective number 3 is to distinguish between product costs and period costs and give examples of each.

16. Product Costs Versus Period Costs
3-16
Product Costs Versus Period Costs
Product costs include direct materials, direct labor, and manufacturing overhead.
Period costs include all selling costs and administrative costs.
Inventory
Cost of Good Sold
Balance Sheet
Income Statement
Sale
Expense
Income Statement
Costs can also be classified as product or period costs.
Product costs include all the costs that are involved in acquiring or making a product. More specifically, it includes direct materials, direct labor, and manufacturing overhead. Consistent with the matching principle, product costs are recognized as expenses when the products are sold. This can result in a delay of one or more periods between the time in which the cost is incurred and when it appears as an expense on the income statement. Product costs are also known as inventoriable costs. The discussion in the chapter follows the usual interpretation of GAAP in which all manufacturing costs are treated as product costs.
Period costs include all selling costs and administrative costs. These costs are expensed on the income statement in the period incurred. All selling and administrative costs are typically considered to be period costs. The usual rules of accrual accounting apply to period costs. For example, administrative salary costs are “incurred” when they are earned by the employees and not necessarily when they are paid to employees.

17. 3-17
Quick Check 
Which of the following costs would be considered a period rather than a product cost in a manufacturing company?
A. Manufacturing equipment depreciation.
B. Property taxes on corporate headquarters.
C. Direct materials costs.
D. Electrical costs to light the production
facility.
E. Sales commissions.
Which of the following costs would be considered a period rather than a product cost in a manufacturing company?

18. 3-18
Quick Check 
Which of the following costs would be considered a period rather than a product cost in a manufacturing company?
A. Manufacturing equipment depreciation.
B. Property taxes on corporate headquarters.
C. Direct materials costs.
D. Electrical costs to light the production
facility.
E. Sales commissions.
Property taxes on corporate headquarters and sales commissions are period costs. All of the other costs listed are product costs.

19. Classifications of Costs
3-19
Classifications of Costs
Manufacturing costs are often classified as follows:
Direct Material
Direct Labor
Manufacturing Overhead
Prime Cost
Conversion Cost
Two more cost categories are often used in discussions of manufacturing costs—prime cost and conversion cost. Prime cost is the sum of direct materials cost and direct labor cost. Conversion cost is the sum of direct labor cost and manufacturing overhead cost. The term conversion cost is used to describe direct labor and manufacturing overhead because these costs are incurred to convert materials into the finished product.

20. Comparing Merchandising and Manufacturing Companies
3-20
Comparing Merchandising and Manufacturing Companies
Merchandisers . . .
Buy finished goods.
Sell finished goods.
Manufacturers . . .
Buy raw materials.
Produce and sell finished goods.
MegaLoMart
Merchandising companies purchase finished goods from suppliers for resale to customers. Manufacturing companies purchase raw materials from suppliers and produce and sell finished goods to customers.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin

21. Balance Sheet Manufacturer Current Assets Merchandiser Current assets
3-21
Balance Sheet
Merchandiser
Current assets
Cash
Receivables
Merchandise Inventory
Manufacturer
Current Assets
Cash
Receivables
Inventories
Raw Materials
Work in Process
Finished Goods
Now, let’s consider similarities and differences on the balance sheet for merchandising and manufacturing companies. Both merchandising and manufacturing companies will likely have Cash and Receivables. However, merchandising companies do not have to distinguish between raw materials, work in process, and finished goods. They report one inventory number on their balance sheets, labeled merchandise inventory. Manufacturing companies report three types of inventory on their balance sheets: raw materials, work in process, and finished goods.

22. Materials waiting to be processed. Completed products awaiting sale.
3-22
Balance Sheet
Merchandiser
Current assets
Cash
Receivables
Merchandise Inventory
Manufacturer
Current Assets
Cash
Receivables
Inventories
Raw Materials
Work in Process
Finished Goods
Materials waiting to be processed.
Partially complete products – some material, labor, or overhead has been added.
Part I
Raw materials are the materials used to make the product.
Part II
Work in process consists of units of product that are partially complete, but will require further work to be saleable to customers.
Part III
Finished goods consists of units of product that have been completed, but not yet sold to customers.
Completed products awaiting sale.

23. 3-23
Learning Objective 4
Prepare an income statement including calculation of the cost of goods sold.
Learning objective number 4 is to prepare an income statement including calculation of the cost of goods sold.

24. 3-24
The Income Statement
Cost of goods sold for manufacturers differs only slightly from cost of goods sold for merchandisers.
Merchandising companies calculate cost of goods sold as Beginning Merchandise Inventory plus Purchases minus Ending Merchandise Inventory.
For manufacturing companies, the cost of goods sold for a period is not simply the manufacturing costs incurred during the period. Manufacturing companies calculate cost of goods sold as Beginning Finished Goods Inventory plus Cost of Goods Manufactured minus Ending Finished Goods Inventory. Some of the cost of goods sold may be for units completed in a previous period. And some of the units completed in the current period may not have been sold and will still be on the balance sheet as assets. The cost of goods sold is computed with the aid of a schedule of costs of goods manufactured, which takes into account changes in inventories. The schedule of cost of goods manufactured is not ordinarily included in external financial reports, but must be compiled by accountants within the company in order to arrive at the cost of goods sold. We will learn more about a schedule of costs of goods manufactured later in this chapter.

25. Basic Equation for Inventory Accounts
3-25
Basic Equation for Inventory Accounts
Beginning
balance
Additions to inventory + =
Ending
Withdrawals from
inventory
The computation of Cost of Goods Sold relies on this basic equation for inventory accounts. The logic underlying this equation applies to any inventory account. Any units that are in inventory at the beginning of the period appear as the beginning balance. During the period, additions are made to the inventory through purchases or other means. The sum of the beginning balance and the additions to the account is the total amount of inventory available. During the period, withdrawals are made from inventory. The ending balance is whatever is left at the end of the period after the withdrawals.

26. 3-26
Quick Check 
If your inventory balance at the beginning of the month was $1,000, you bought $100 during the month, and sold $300 during the month, what would be the balance at the end of the month?
A. $1,000.
B. $
C. $1,200.
D. $
If your inventory balance at the beginning of the month was $1,000, you bought $100 during the month, and sold $300 during the month, what would be the balance at the end of the month?

27. Quick Check  $1,000 + $100 = $1,100 $1,100 - $300 = $800
3-27
Quick Check 
If your inventory balance at the beginning of the month was $1,000, you bought $100 during the month, and sold $300 during the month, what would be the balance at the end of the month?
A. $1,000.
B. $
C. $1,200.
D. $
$1,000 + $100 = $1,100
$1,100 - $300 = $800
Right. $800. This is calculated as beginning inventory of $1,000 plus purchases of $100 minus ending inventory of $300.

28. Prepare a schedule of cost of goods manufactured.
3-28
Learning Objective 5
Prepare a schedule of cost of goods manufactured.
Learning objective number 5 is to prepare a schedule of cost of goods manufactured.

29. Schedule of Cost of Goods Manufactured
3-29
Schedule of Cost of Goods Manufactured
Calculates the cost of raw material, direct labor, and manufacturing overhead used in production.
Calculates the manufacturing costs associated with goods that were finished during the period.
The schedule of cost of goods manufactured contains the three elements of costs mentioned previously, namely direct materials, direct labor, and manufacturing overhead. It calculates the cost of raw material, direct labor and manufacturing overhead used in production. It also calculates the manufacturing costs associated with goods that were finished during the period.

30. 3-30
Product Cost Flows
To create a schedule of cost of goods manufactured, as well as a balance sheet and income statement, it is important to understand the flow of product costs.
Raw material purchases made during the period are added to beginning raw materials inventory. The ending raw materials inventory is deducted to arrive at the raw materials used in production.
As items are removed from the raw materials inventory and placed into the production process, they are called direct materials.
As items are removed from raw materials inventory and placed into the production process, they are called direct materials.

31. 3-31
Product Cost Flows
Conversion costs are costs incurred to convert the direct material into a finished product.
Direct labor and manufacturing overhead (also called conversion costs) used in production are added to direct materials to arrive at total manufacturing costs.

32. 3-32
Product Cost Flows
Total manufacturing costs are added to the beginning work in process to arrive at total work in process.
All manufacturing costs incurred during the period are added to the beginning balance of work in process.

33. 3-33
Product Cost Flows
The ending work in process inventory is deducted from the total work in process for the period to arrive at the cost of goods manufactured.
Costs associated with the goods that are completed during the period are transferred to finished goods inventory.

34. 3-34
Product Cost Flows
The cost of goods manufactured is added to the beginning finished goods inventory to arrive at cost of goods available for sale. The ending finished goods inventory is deducted from this figure to arrive at cost of goods sold.

35. Manufacturing Cost Flows
3-35
Manufacturing Cost Flows
Income Statement Expenses
Balance Sheet Costs Inventories
Material Purchases
Raw Materials
Manufacturing Overhead
Work in Process
Direct Labor
Finished Goods
Part I
All raw materials, work in process, and unsold finished goods at the end of the period are shown as inventoriable costs in the asset section of the balance sheet.
Part II
As finished goods are sold, their costs are transferred to cost of goods sold in the income statement.
Part III
Selling and administrative expenses are not involved in making the product; therefore, they are treated as period costs and reported in the income statement for the period the cost is incurred.
Cost of Goods Sold
Selling and Administrative
Period Costs

36. 3-36
Quick Check 
Beginning raw materials inventory was $32, During the month, $276,000 of raw material was purchased. A count at the end of the month revealed that $28,000 of raw material was still present. What is the cost of direct material used?
A. $276,000
B. $272,000
C. $280,000
D. $ 2,000
Beginning raw materials inventory was $32,000. During the month, $276,000 of raw material was purchased. A count at the end of the month revealed that $28,000 of raw material was still present. What is the cost of direct material used?

37. 3-37
Quick Check 
Beginning raw materials inventory was $32, During the month, $276,000 of raw material was purchased. A count at the end of the month revealed that $28,000 of raw material was still present. What is the cost of direct material used?
A. $276,000
B. $272,000
C. $280,000
D. $ 2,000
Right. $280,000. Take a minute and review the solution before proceeding.

38. 3-38
Quick Check 
Direct materials used in production totaled $280,000. Direct labor was $375,000 and factory overhead was $180,000. What were total manufacturing costs incurred for the month?
A. $555,000
B. $835,000
C. $655,000
D. Cannot be determined.
Direct materials used in production totaled $280,000. Direct labor was $375,000 and factory overhead was $180,000. What were total manufacturing costs incurred for the month?

39. 3-39
Quick Check 
Direct materials used in production totaled $280,000. Direct labor was $375,000 and factory overhead was $180,000. What were total manufacturing costs incurred for the month?
A. $555,000
B. $835,000
C. $655,000
D. Cannot be determined.
Right. $835,000. Take a minute and review the solution before proceeding.

40. 3-40
Quick Check 
Beginning work in process was $125, Manufacturing costs incurred for the month were $835,000. There were $200,000 of partially finished goods remaining in work in process inventory at the end of the month. What was the cost of goods manufactured during the month?
A. $1,160,000
B. $ 910,000
C. $ 760,000
D. Cannot be determined.
Beginning work in process was $125,000. Manufacturing costs incurred for the month were $835,000. There were $200,000 of partially finished goods remaining in work in process inventory at the end of the month. What was the cost of goods manufactured during the month?

41. 3-41
Quick Check 
Beginning work in process was $125, Manufacturing costs incurred for the month were $835,000. There were $200,000 of partially finished goods remaining in work in process inventory at the end of the month. What was the cost of goods manufactured during the month?
A. $1,160,000
B. $ 910,000
C. $ 760,000
D. Cannot be determined.
Right. $760,000. Take a minute and review the solution before proceeding.

42. 3-42
Quick Check 
Beginning finished goods inventory was $130,000. The cost of goods manufactured for the month was $760,000. And the ending finished goods inventory was $150,000. What was the cost of goods sold for the month?
A. $ 20,000.
B. $740,000.
C. $780,000.
D. $760,000.
Beginning finished goods inventory was $130,000. The cost of goods manufactured for the month was $760,000. And the ending finished goods inventory was $150,000. What was the cost of goods sold for the month?

43. 3-43
Quick Check 
Beginning finished goods inventory was $130,000. The cost of goods manufactured for the month was $760,000. And the ending finished goods inventory was $150,000. What was the cost of goods sold for the month?
A. $ 20,000.
B. $740,000.
C. $780,000.
D. $760,000.
$130,000 + $760,000 = $890,000
$890,000 - $150,000 = $740,000
Right. $740,000. Take a minute and review the solution before proceeding.

44. Understand the differences between variable costs and fixed costs.
3-44
Learning Objective 6
Understand the differences between variable costs and fixed costs.
Learning objective number 6 is to understand the differences between variable costs and fixed costs.

45. Cost Classifications for Predicting Cost Behavior
3-45
Cost Classifications for Predicting Cost Behavior
How a cost will react to changes in the level of activity within the relevant range.
Total variable costs change when activity changes.
Total fixed costs remain unchanged when activity changes.
Quite frequently, it is necessary to predict how a certain cost will behave in response to a change in activity. For example, a manager may want to estimate the impact that a 5% increase in sales would have on the company’s total electric bill. Cost behavior refers to how a cost will react to changes in the level of activity within the relevant range. The most commonly used classifications of cost behavior are variable and fixed costs.

46. Your total texting bill is based on how many texts you send.
3-46
Variable Cost
Your total texting bill is based on how many texts you send.
Number of Texts Sent
Total Texting Bill
A variable cost varies in direct proportion to changes in the level of activity. For example, if you don’t have a texting plan on your cell phone, text messaging costs 5 cents per text. Your total texting bill increases with the number of texts you send.

47. The cost per text sent is constant at
3-47
Variable Cost Per Unit
The cost per text sent is constant at
5 cents per text.
Number of Texts Sent
Cost Per Text Sent
Although variable costs change in total as the activity level rises and falls, variable cost per unit is constant. For example, the cost per text message sent is constant at 5 cents per text.

48. 3-48
Fixed Cost
Your monthly contract fee for your cell phone is fixed for the number of monthly minutes in your contract. The monthly contract fee does not change based on the number of calls you make.
Number of Minutes Used Within Monthly Plan
Monthly Cell Phone Contract Fee
A fixed cost is constant within the relevant range. In other words, fixed costs do not change for changes in activity that fall within the “relevant range.” For example, your monthly contract fee for your cell phone is a fixed amount for a certain number of minutes. The monthly contract fee does not change based on the number of calls you make.
Of course, if you go over your monthly minutes allotment, you have exceed the relevant range for your monthly contract and will be charged above and beyond your monthly contract fee.

49. 3-49
Fixed Cost Per Unit
Within the monthly contract allotment, the average fixed cost per cell phone call made decreases as more calls are made.
Number of Minutes Used Within Monthly Plan
Monthly Cell Phone Contract Fee
However, when expressed on a per unit basis, a fixed cost is inversely related to activity—the per unit cost decreases when activity rises and increases when activity falls. For example, the average fixed cost per cell phone call made decreases as more calls are made in the month.

50. Cost Classifications for Predicting Cost Behavior
3-50
Cost Classifications for Predicting Cost Behavior
It is helpful to think about variable and fixed cost behavior in a 2x2 matrix, as illustrated here. Take a few minutes and review this summary of cost behavior for variable and fixed costs.

51. 3-51
Quick Check 
Which of the following costs would be variable with respect to the number of cones sold at a Baskins & Robbins shop? (There may be more than one correct answer.)
A. The cost of lighting the store.
B. The wages of the store manager.
C. The cost of ice cream.
D. The cost of napkins for customers.
Which of the following costs would be variable with respect to the number of cones sold at a Baskins and Robbins shop? (There may be more than one correct answer.)

52. 3-52
Quick Check 
Which of the following costs would be variable with respect to the number of cones sold at a Baskins & Robbins shop? (There may be more than one correct answer.)
A. The cost of lighting the store.
B. The wages of the store manager.
C. The cost of ice cream.
D. The cost of napkins for customers.
Right. The cost of ice cream and the cost of napkins for customers would be variable costs. As Baskins and Robbins sells more ice cream cones, we would expect the total cost of ice cream and napkins to increase.

53. Understand the differences between direct and indirect costs.
3-53
Learning Objective 7
Understand the differences between direct and indirect costs.
Learning objective number 7 is to understand the differences between direct and indirect costs.

54. Assigning Costs to Cost Objects
3-54
Assigning Costs to Cost Objects
Direct costs
Costs that can be easily and conveniently traced to a unit of product or other cost object.
Examples: direct material and direct labor
Indirect costs
Costs that cannot be easily and conveniently traced to a unit of product or other cost object.
Example: manufacturing overhead
A cost object is anything for which cost data are desired including products, customers, jobs, organizational subunits, etc. For purposes of assigning costs to cost objects, costs are classified two ways:
Direct costs are costs that can be easily and conveniently traced to a specified cost object. Examples of direct costs are direct material and direct labor.
Indirect costs are costs that cannot be easily and conveniently traced to a specified cost object. An example of an indirect cost is manufacturing overhead. Common costs are indirect costs incurred to support a number of cost objects. These costs cannot be traced to any individual cost object.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin

55. 3-55
Learning Objective 8
Define and give examples of cost classifications used in making decisions: differential costs, opportunity costs, and sunk costs.
Learning objective number 8 is to define and give examples of cost classifications used in making decisions: differential costs, opportunity costs, and sunk costs.

56. Cost Classifications for Decision Making
3-56
Cost Classifications for Decision Making
Every decision involves a choice between at least two alternatives.
Only those costs and benefits that differ between alternatives are relevant in a decision. All other costs and benefits can and should be ignored.
It is important to realize that every decision involves a choice between at least two alternatives. The goal of making decisions is to identify those costs that are either relevant or irrelevant to the decision. Costs and benefits that differ between alternatives are relevant in a decision. All other costs and benefits are irrelevant and can and should be ignored. To make decisions, it is essential to have a grasp on three concepts: differential costs, opportunity costs, and sunk costs.

57. Differential Cost and Revenue
3-57
Differential Cost and Revenue
Costs and revenues that differ among alternatives.
Example: You have a job paying $1,500 per month in your hometown. You have a job offer in a neighboring city that pays $2,000 per month. The commuting cost to the city is $300 per month.
Differential costs (or incremental costs) is a difference in cost between any two alternatives. Differential costs can be either fixed or variable. A difference in revenue between two alternatives is called differential revenue.
For example, assume you have a job paying $1,500 per month in your hometown. You have a job offer in a neighboring city that pays $2,000 per month. The commuting cost to the city is $300 per month. In this example, the differential revenue is $500 and the differential cost is $300.
Differential revenue is:
$2,000 – $1,500 = $500
Differential cost is:
$300

58. 3-58
Opportunity Cost
The potential benefit that is given up when one alternative is selected over another.
Example: If you were not attending college, you could be earning $15,000 per year. Your opportunity cost of attending college for one year is $15,000.
Opportunity cost is the potential benefit that is given up when one alternative is selected over another. These costs are not usually entered into the accounting records of an organization, but must be explicitly considered in all decisions.

59. 3-59
Sunk Costs
Sunk costs have already been incurred and cannot be changed now or in the future. These costs should be ignored when making decisions.
Example: You bought an automobile that cost $10,000 two years ago. The $10,000 cost is sunk because whether you drive it, park it, trade it, or sell it, you cannot change the $10,000 cost.
A sunk cost is a cost that has already been incurred and that cannot be changed by any decision made now or in the future. Since sunk costs cannot be changed and therefore cannot be differential costs, they should be ignored in decision making. While students usually accept the idea that sunk costs should be ignored on an abstract level, like most people, they often have difficulty putting this idea into practice.

60. 3-60
Quick Check 
Suppose you are trying to decide whether to drive or take the train to Portland to attend a concert. You have ample cash to do either, but you don’t want to waste money needlessly. Is the cost of the train ticket relevant in this decision? In other words, should the cost of the train ticket affect the decision of whether you drive or take the train to Portland?
A. Yes, the cost of the train ticket is relevant.
B. No, the cost of the train ticket is not relevant.
Take a minute and read the information on this slide. Should the cost of the train ticket affect the decision of whether you drive or take the train to Portland?

61. 3-61
Quick Check 
Suppose you are trying to decide whether to drive or take the train to Portland to attend a concert. You have ample cash to do either, but you don’t want to waste money needlessly. Is the cost of the train ticket relevant in this decision? In other words, should the cost of the train ticket affect the decision of whether you drive or take the train to Portland?
A. Yes, the cost of the train ticket is relevant.
B. No, the cost of the train ticket is not relevant.
Yes, it should because the cost of the train ticket is relevant.

62. 3-62
Quick Check 
Suppose you are trying to decide whether to drive or take the train to Portland to attend a concert. You have ample cash to do either, but you don’t want to waste money needlessly. Is the annual cost of licensing your car relevant in this decision?
A. Yes, the licensing cost is relevant.
B. No, the licensing cost is not relevant.
Take a minute and read the information on this slide. Is the annual cost of licensing your car relevant in this decision?

63. 3-63
Quick Check 
Suppose you are trying to decide whether to drive or take the train to Portland to attend a concert. You have ample cash to do either, but you don’t want to waste money needlessly. Is the annual cost of licensing your car relevant in this decision?
A. Yes, the licensing cost is relevant.
B. No, the licensing cost is not relevant.
No, it is not because the licensing cost is not relevant.

64. 3-64
Quick Check 
Suppose that your car could be sold now for $5,000. Is this a sunk cost?
A. Yes, it is a sunk cost.
B. No, it is not a sunk cost.
Suppose that your car could be sold now for $5,000. Is this a sunk cost?

65. 3-65
Quick Check 
Suppose that your car could be sold now for $5,000. Is this a sunk cost?
A. Yes, it is a sunk cost.
B. No, it is not a sunk cost.
No, it is not a sunk cost.

66. Summary of the Types of Cost Classifications
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Summary of the Types of Cost Classifications
Financial Reporting
Predicting Cost Behavior
Assigning Costs to Cost Objects
We have looked at the cost classifications used for financial reporting, predicting cost behavior, assigning costs to cost objects, and making business decisions. Now, let’s look at how to classify idle time, overtime, and fringe benefits.
Making Business Decisions

67. Further Classification of Labor Costs
3-67
Further Classification of Labor Costs
Appendix 2A: Further Classification of Labor Costs.
Appendix 2A

68. 3-68
Learning Objective 9
(Appendix 2A)
Properly account for labor costs associated with idle time, overtime, and fringe benefits.
Learning objective number 9 is to properly account for labor costs associated with idle time, overtime, and fringe benefits.

69. 3-69
Idle Time
Machine Breakdowns
Material Shortages
Power Failures
The labor costs incurred during idle time are ordinarily treated as manufacturing overhead.
Machine breakdowns, material shortages, power failures and the like, result in idle time. The labor costs incurred during idle time are ordinarily treated as manufacturing overhead. This enables the costs to be spread across all the production rather than the units in process when the disruptions occur.

70. 3-70
Overtime
The overtime premiums for all factory workers are usually considered to be part of manufacturing overhead.
The overtime premiums for all factory workers are usually considered to be part of manufacturing overhead. This is done to avoid penalizing particular products or customer orders simply because they happen to fall on the tail end of the daily production schedule.

71. Some companies include all of these costs in manufacturing overhead.
3-71
Labor Fringe Benefits
Fringe benefits include employer paid costs for insurance programs, retirement plans, supplemental unemployment programs, Social Security, Medicare, workers’ compensation, and unemployment taxes.
Labor fringe benefit costs are employment-related costs paid by an employer, such as insurance programs, retirement plans, and supplemental unemployment programs. They also include the employer’s share of Social Security and Medicare, workers’ compensation, federal employment tax, and state unemployment insurance. These costs often add up to 30 to 40 percent of an employee’s base pay.
Some companies include all of these costs in manufacturing overhead. Other companies opt for the conceptually superior method of treating fringe benefit expenses of direct laborers as additional direct labor costs.
Some companies include all of these costs in manufacturing overhead.
Other companies treat fringe benefit expenses of direct laborers as additional direct labor costs.

72. 3-72
Cost of Quality
Appendix 2B: Cost of Quality.
Appendix 2B

73. 3-73
Learning Objective 10
(Appendix 2B)
Identify the four types of quality costs and explain how they interact.
Learning objective number 10 is to identify the four types of quality costs and explain how they interact.

74. Quality of Conformance
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Quality of Conformance
When the overwhelming majority of products produced conform to design specifications and are free from defects.
The term quality has many meanings. Quality can mean that a product has many features not found in other products; it can mean that it is well-designed; or it can mean that it is defect-free. In this appendix, the focus is on the presence or absence of defects. Quality of conformance is the degree to which the actual product or service meets its design specifications. Anything that does not meet design specifications is a defect and is indicative of low quality of conformance. There are four broad categories of quality costs: prevention costs, appraisal costs, internal failure costs, and external failure costs.

75. Prevention and Appraisal Costs
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Prevention and Appraisal Costs
Prevention Costs
Support activities whose purpose is to reduce the number of defects
Prevention costs are incurred to support activities whose purpose is to reduce the number of defects. Appraisal costs are incurred to identify defective products before the products are shipped to customers.
Appraisal Costs
Incurred to identify defective products before the products are shipped to customers

76. Internal and External Failure Costs
3-76
Internal and External Failure Costs
Internal Failure Costs
Incurred as a result of identifying defects before they are shipped
Internal failure costs are incurred as a result of identifying defects before they are shipped to customers. External failure costs are incurred as a result of defective products being delivered to customers.
External Failure Costs
Incurred as a result of defective products being delivered to customers

77. Examples of Quality Costs
3-77
Examples of Quality Costs
Prevention Costs
Quality training
Quality circles
Statistical process
control activities
Appraisal Costs
Testing and inspecting
incoming materials
Final product testing
Depreciation of testing
equipment
Internal Failure Costs
Scrap
Spoilage
Rework
External Failure Costs
Cost of field servicing and
handling complaints
Warranty repairs
Lost sales
Here are some examples of each type of quality cost. 
Prevention costs include: quality training, quality circles, and statistical process control activities.
Appraisal costs include: testing and inspection of incoming materials, final product testing, and depreciation of testing equipment.
Internal failure costs include: scrap, spoilage, and rework.
External failure costs include: the cost of field servicing and handling customer complaints, warranty repairs, and lost sales arising from reputation of poor quality.

78. Distribution of Quality Costs
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Distribution of Quality Costs
Graphs are often used to depict the relationship between the four types of quality costs. The graph on this slide illustrates four key concepts.
When the quality of conformance is low, total quality cost is high and most of this cost consists of internal and external failure costs.
Total quality costs drop rapidly as the quality of conformance increases.
Companies reduce their total quality costs by focusing their efforts on prevention and appraisal because the cost savings from reduced defects usually overwhelm the costs of additional prevention and appraisal.
Total quality costs are minimized when the quality of conformance is slightly less than 100%. This is a debatable point in the sense that some experts believe that total quality costs are not minimized until the quality of conformance is 100%.

79. Prepare and interpret a quality cost report.
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Learning Objective 11
(Appendix 2B)
Prepare and interpret a quality cost report.
Learning objective number 11 is to prepare and interpret a quality cost report.

80. 3-80
Quality cost reports provide an estimate of the financial consequences of the company’s current defect rate.
A quality cost report details the prevention, appraisal, internal failure, and external failure costs that arise from a company’s current quality control efforts. When interpreting a cost of quality report managers should look for two trends. First, increases in prevention and appraisal costs should be more than offset by decreases in internal and external failure costs. Second, the total quality costs as a percent of sales should decrease.

81. Quality Cost Reports in Graphic Form
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Quality Cost Reports in Graphic Form
Quality reports can also be prepared in graphic form.
Quality cost reports can also be prepared in graphic form. Managers should still look for the same two trends whether the data are presented in a graphic or table format.

82. Uses of Quality Cost Information
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Uses of Quality Cost Information
Help managers see the financial significance of defects.
Help managers identify the relative importance of the quality problems.
Uses of quality cost information include the following:
It helps managers see the financial significance of defects.
It helps managers identify the relative importance of the quality problems faced by the company.
It helps managers see whether their quality costs are poorly distributed. In general, costs should be distributed more toward prevention and to a lesser extent appraisal than toward failures.
Help managers see whether their quality costs are poorly distributed.

83. Limitations of Quality Cost Information
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Limitations of Quality Cost Information
Simply measuring and reporting quality cost problems does not solve quality problems.
Results usually lag behind quality improvement programs.
Limitations of quality cost information include the following:
Simply measuring and reporting quality cost problems does not solve quality problems.
Results usually lag behind quality improvement programs. Initially, prevention and appraisal cost increases may not be offset by decreases in failure costs.
The most important quality cost, lost sales arising from customer ill-will, is often omitted from quality cost reports because it is difficult to estimate.
The most important quality cost, lost sales, is often omitted from quality cost reports.

84. 3-84
ISO 9000 Standards
ISO 9000 standards have become international measures of quality.
To become ISO 9000 certified, a company must demonstrate:
A quality control system is in use, and the system clearly defines an expected level of quality.
The system is fully operational and is backed up with detailed documentation of quality control procedures.
The intended level of quality is being achieved on a sustained basis.
The International Organization for Standardization, based in Geneva, Switzerland, has established quality control guidelines, known as the ISO 9000 standards. For a company to become ISO 9000 certified by a certifying agency, it must demonstrate that:
1. A quality control system is in use, and the system clearly defines an expected level of quality;
2. The system is fully operational and is backed up with detailed documentation of quality control procedures; and
3. The intended level of quality is being achieved on a sustained basis.
Although the ISO 9000 standards were developed in Europe, they have become widely accepted elsewhere, throughout the world, including the United States.

85. End of Chapter 2
End of chapter 2.