1. Chinese Students in Japan: A Win-Win Situation David Zweig Chair Professor, Division of Social Sciences Director, Center on China’s Transnational Relations and Han Donglin Ph.D. Student, Division of Social Sciences Hong Kong University of Science and Technology CCTR Workshop on “Sino-Japanese Relations” 5 September 2007

2. Key Questions Do contemporary student exchanges promote Sino-Japanese relations?Do contemporary student exchanges promote Sino-Japanese relations? How extensive are interactions between Chinese returnees and Japan?How extensive are interactions between Chinese returnees and Japan? Which returnees interact with Japan and why?Which returnees interact with Japan and why? What resources and information are transferred between the two countries?What resources and information are transferred between the two countries?

3. Overseas Study and Attitudes Towards Japan Does studying in Japan affect how Chinese feel about Japan? Does one’s attitude about Japan vary by locality in China? Does how one feels about Japan affect one’s willingness to carry out exchanges with Japan?

4. Does Studying in Japan Affect Returnee’s Lives? How important is the Japanese experience to a returnee’s life? Do returnees really confront an unemployment problem? Does overseas study enhance Chinese youths’ job opportunities after they return?

5. Research Design and the Data Set 22 interviews carried out in three Chinese cities: Dalian, Guangzhou and Nanjing 21 interviews in Japan with Chinese living in Tokyo, Osaka and Kyoto Funding from JETRO (Hong Kong)

6. Key information for this study comes from survey in late 2006 and early 2007 carried out by The Ministry of Education’s Chinese Service Center for Scholarly Exchange (CSCSE-- 中国留学服务中心 ) –drew on list of 6,806 returnees who had registered with CSCSE –they found 3,003 of them –telephoned and asked if they would fill out the questionnaire –2,940 agreed to their request and we received 1,478 responses Research Design and the Data Set, II

7. Characteristics of the Data Women  41% 1/2 of returnees work in academia or research 1/2 in businesses of whom 1/2 work in Japanese firms or Japanese joint ventures. 27% are members of a political party and 73% reported no party affiliation.

8. When people returned from Japan 46% returned in 2005-06 (631). No time to establish themselves in China, unlikely to have strong transactions with Japan. Figure 1. The Year Respondents Returned to China

9. Degrees in Japan 38% earned Ph.D. 40% earned M.A. 19% earned undergraduate degree

10. Table 1. Highest Degree and Area of Specialization Highest Degree Area of Specialization Community College UndergraduateMAPhD.Total Medical Science 308149160 (13%) Industrial & Applied Science 31176147237 (20%) Law 020371168 (5%) Natural Science 0633112151 (11%) Business Admin. & Management 1112314119294 (24%) Social Science 1238739150 (13%) Humanity & Art 1257137134 (11%) Other 11002 No response 01203 Total 202104555411199 Pearson Chi square = 578.50, p>0.001

11. Language skills 69% fluent in Japanese 21% reported Japanese was “pretty good” Only 3% reported very weak or no Japanese 18% of these returnees reported fluency in English 25% claimed English to be “pretty good” Excellent language skills overall

12. Social Background Social class background –worker (18%) –peasant (14%) –children of intellectuals (37%) 70% married 25% never married 5% had divorced

13. Figure 2. Age of Returnees

14. Table 2. Chinese Residents in Japan, Dec 2004 ItemNumber of Chinese No. registered as foreigners487,570 Students registered as foreigners90,746 Japanese citizens92,335 Illegal residents39,443 Cultural Chinese*5,208 Total624,558 Note: * Japanese offspring brought up by Chinese families in China after WWII.

15. Table 3. Overseas Degrees Authenticated in China Degree % of total Top 4 Countries Issuing Degrees 1234 Ph.D.9%JapanUSGermanyn.a. Masters72%UKJapanAustraliaUS Undergrad19%RussiaJapanUKn.a. Note: This breakdown is based on the total number of degrees that have been authenticated by the CSCSE between 1991 and 2005. The total number of authenticated degrees is 44,565. Source: China Service Center for Studies in Education, Ministry of Education, Beijing.

17. Table 4. Destination of Returnees from Japan, 2000-2006 (Part 1) 名称 NameTotalPercentage 辽宁省 Liaoning54821.63 - 沈阳 - including Shenyang1897.46 - 大连 - including Dalian26510.46 江苏省 Jiangsu34913.78 - 南京 - including Nanjing1084.26 山东省 Shandong33713.3 - 青岛 - including Qingdao1857.30 广东省 Guangdong27710.94 - 广州 - including Guangzhou1515.96 浙江省 Zhejiang2178.57 黑龙江省 Heilongjiang1204.74 福建省 Fujian1104.34 吉林省 Jilin1074.22 河北省 Hebei963.79 四川省 Sichuan843.32 - 成都 - including Chengdu582.29 河南省 Henan763.0 山西省 Shanxi411.62

18. Table 4. Destination of Returnees from Japan, 2000-2006 (Part 2) 名称 NameTotalPercentage 湖南省 Hunan401.58 湖北省 Hubei391.54 江西省 Jiangxi251.0 云南省 Yunnan230.9 安徽省 Anhui210.83 青海省 Qinghai110.43 海南省 Hainan70.3 贵州省 Guizhou50.2 北京 Beijing192031.7 内蒙古 Neimenggu1232.0 上海 Shanghai109418.0 新疆 Xinjiang641.0 广西 Guangxi251.0 天津 Tianjin1574.93 宁夏 Ningxia110.2 重庆 Chongqing140.44 西安 Xi'an1011.6 兰州 Lanzhou190.3 总计 Total6061

19. Returnees from Japan: Getting the Numbers Right, II Our population does not represent all the people who have returned from Japan. Dalian Bureau of Personnel reported that the city has approximately 1,100 returnees of whom 620 had returned from Japan, more than double the 265 returnees in Dalian registered with CSCSE. Assume that the CSCSE numbers seriously understate the number of returnees from Japan.

20. Who paid for returnees to go to Japan? Chinese government sponsored 2% Japanese gave full fellowships to 31% 39% relied on their own finances and worked while studying in Japan (quanbu kao ziji, ban gong ban du) 25% relied on own funds and parental support Public or Private Sponsorship? “publicly sponsored” – 14% private citizens (yin si chu guo) – 86%

21. To Go to Japan or Not to Go? Universal viewpoint among Chinese in Japan was that Japan was not for everybody: –Most Chinese see Japan as relatively difficult place to get an education. Chinese need to be able to work as part of a team –“If you are too much of an individual, you will not succeed in Japan”—long-term resident of Japan. “Engineering here is very advanced, but the chance for personal development is not so great. It is better in American or in the West.”—long-term resident

22. To Go Or Not to Go, II “No time to do your studies because you are under pressure all the time to work and can’t fulfill the expectations of your professor.” “If you have a grant, come to Japan. If you rely on your self, like me, then I wouldn’t recommend coming here.” “It is very good for young Chinese people to come here to study, but it is not so good to come here to work after graduating from high school.”

23. Table 5. Components of the Interaction Score Modes of Interaction a. Participated in Research Conferences in Japan b. Number of trips to Japan to lecture c. Number of Japanese students taught in China d. Publications with Japanese Scholars e. Joint projects with Japanese scholars f. No. of times helped Japanese scholars come to China for research g. No. of articles published in Japan h. Consulted with Japanese joint ventures i. Membership in Japanese academic associations Note: For all questions excluding "Number of Japanese taught" we scored 1 interaction as 1 point, 2 interactions as 2 points, with 4 interactions or more as 4 points. No interactions is scored as 0. However, for "No. of Japanese Students Taught," scored 1 = 1, 2-5 = 2, 6-10 = 3, 10 or more = 4 and 0 = 0.

24. Figure 3. Distribution of Interaction Score for Academics

25. Who interacts and Why? 75% of returnees had 3 or more interactions 50% had 6 or more interactions 25% had 10 or more interactions

26. Explaining Levels of Interaction, Bivariate Analysis Age Years in Japan Current position in China Position in Japan before returning “ Feelings about Japan ” had very low impact on level of interactions but was statistically significant.

27. Table 6. Number of interactions with Japan, by position in China, 2006 No. of Interactions LecturerAssociate Prof.Full Prof. 0-384 (42.4)58 (24.5)16 (11.7) 4-658 (29.3)56 (23.6)22 (16.1) 7-1033 ( 16.7)72 (30.3)37 (27) >1123 (11.6)51 (21.5)62 (45.3) Total198237137 Note: We excluded all non-academics from the data, leaving 590 cases. p<0.01. Number in parentheses is column percentage.

28. Table 7. Explaining Returned Academics’ Level of Interaction with Japan VariablesCoefficienttProbability 1. Age.1212.180. 030** 2. Female.4300.810. 419 3. Year Returned to China-.172-1.660. 097* 4. Length of time in Japan.2652.900. 004*** 5. Academic Degree a. Bachelor-6.503-1.160.248 b. Master-5.986-1.090.276 c. Doctoral-3.344-0.610.543 Fields of Study Engineering and Applied Science-.484-0.700.482 Law1.8331.190.235 Natural Science.5030.690.490 Business and management2.542.360.019** Social science1.1191.200.232 Feelings towards Japan.1611.040.297 Academic Position Associate Professor1.1421.590.113 Full Professor3.3473.890.000*** Others-1.603-0.990.324 Constant346.3581.670.095 * 0.10 ** 0.05 *** 0.01 Note: overall adjusted R-square=.2076

29. The Off-shore Software Industry A major force linking returnees and Japanese economy in Dalian One Dalian company owned by Japanese, set up by Chinese entrepreneur. He travels each month with new work for the company, but lives in Japan. For off-shore company to succeed, prices in China need only be 15% less than in Japan and Japanese will bring work to China.

30. Collaborative Investment Companies A company in Nanjing refines semi-finished products shipped in from Japan; Start-up capital from 17 Chinese students in Nagoya, Japan Company run by one member of group who returned to China He goes twice a year to Japan to see what products Japanese firms are developing; he imports that material to develop his products; He then sells his products to Japanese firms in China, helps Japanese firms in China develop higher quality products which are competitive and exportable.

31. Collaborative Investment Companies Chinese working for Nokia in Japan, with four friends set up company in Weihai, Shandong, employ 100 workers. He and 4 friends invested 1 mil. RMB. 2 of 4 owners returned to China to run the company, receive a salary; 3 others, including him, still in Japan.

32. Returnees and their Work in China

33. Many respondents recent returnees 39% at current job one year or less; 62% had been at their job 2 years or less 76% at current job 3 years or less 24% at current job 4 or more years Had they Worked in China before Going Abroad? 74% had fulltime jobs before going to Japan –24% had not held a job before going to Japan. 21% returned to their original unit, but 74% had to find a new job before or after returning

34. Had they Worked in Japan Before Returning to China? Very important job requirement for good job in China after returning 30.5% had fulltime job, 28% had part time job 41% had no job. Over 50% had worked for 2 years or less, 26% had worked for 1 year or less. Not much work experience in Japan in this group.

35. Is there a “Hai Dai” Problem? Chinese media stresses new problem, that returnees cannot find jobs. Local governments under pressure to help returnees find jobs, run workshops, consulting services, etc. Are there too many returnees? High rates of unemployment among Chinese college graduates.

36. Difficulty Finding a Job upon Returning? This group did NOT have a major problem finding work No problem39% Not much of a problem18% Some problems 10% Very great difficulty 5% No response 8% Went into business10%

37. Time Spent Looking for a Job 50% arranged a job before returning After Returning 27% found job in under 3 months 12% looked for 3-6 months Only 7.4% looked for more than 6 months Salaries are a bigger issue more than 4,000 RMB/month- 45% less than 1800 RMB/month - 20%

38. Explaining Time Finding a Job, Ordered Logit Coefficientt valueP value Age (logged)-1.21.55.027 Gender-Female-.09.14.541 Fields of Study: Natural Science.19.23.403 Business/Management-.30.21.142 Other-.02.21.922 Went to Japan by private methods-1.73.29.000 Degree: Bachelor.78.45.084 Master.87.45.05 Ph.D.1.43.47.002 Japanese Proficiency: Good-.26.16.117 Fair-1.17.27.000 Bad-.04.49.935 Worked in China first: Part-time -.53.54.326 Not worked-.35.19.061 Worked in Japan: Part-time-.76.19.000 Never worked-.53.17.002 Party Member-.56.18.002

39. Table 8 Satisfaction with Experiences in Japan, Returned Academics VariablesCoefficienttP Age.004.56.577 Female.1522.5.013 Year Return.0302.48.014 Skill developed in Japan.2247.92.000 Income-.039-1.3.195 Fields of Study Engineering/ Applied Science.2082.60 0.010 Law -.403-2.20 0.028 Natural Science.1942.36 0.019 Business and management-.059-0.470.639 Social science.1401.290.197 Academic degree-.214-2.490.013 Length of time in Japan.0232.080.038 Arrangements for going to Japan† - Private means-.166-2.290.023 - Thru government then personal-.201-0.610.540 Associate Professor.1241.480.140 Full Professor.1301.290.199 Others-.075-0.350.723 Interact.0101.850.066 Constant-61.392-2.510.012

40. Notes to Table 8 1. Level of Satisfaction ran from “very dissatisfied” to “very satisfied” (four point scale). 2. Overall adjusted R-square =.22 † We ask respondents whether they went to Japan through the government [gong pai chuguo, through personal [yin si chuguo] or combined.

41. Technology Transfer and Returnees from Japan

42. Among 39 private Chinese firms Only 14 or 36% had imported some Japanese technology or management processes 4 had imported “world class technology,” 9 had imported a technology that was “new for China” Japanese Joint Ventures mostly have imported some Japanese technology

43. Table 11. No. of Research Projects with Japanese Academics FrequencyPercentCumulative Percent Number of Interactions 1 12817.8 2 598.225.9 3 324.430.4 4 or more 324.434.8 None 44161.296.1 No response 294.0100.0 Total 721100.0

44. Table 12. Reasons to Cooperate: The Role of Technology Why cooperate with Japan? 1 st Choice 2 nd Choice 3 rd Choice “I want the newest research information from Japan” 158 (25%) 174 (28%) 71 (11%) “I want Japanese research technology” 74 (12%) 130 (21%) 58 (9%)

45. Attitudes of Chinese Students Towards Japan and Other Countries

46. Figure 4. Attitudes of Returnees from Japan towards 5 countries, 2006

47. Table 14. “Level of feelings" of Chinese in China and Japan, 7 countries Target Countries U.S.RussiaJapanIndiaNorth Korea FranceCanada Returnees in China 1.821.28***2.20***1.04***1.772.15***2.00 Chinese in Japan 1.200.682.05***0.11***- 0.74***2.05***1.55 Mean score of returnees in China is 1.75. Mean score of Chinese in Japan is 0.89. *** p <.01

48. Chinese who Study in Japan like Japan! Chinese who go to Japan, favour Japan over all other countries. Challenges idea of “ 留美亲美，留日反日 ” France and Canada also very popular Feelings towards U.S. significantly lower than feelings for Japan Feelings to North Korea bifurcated— Chinese in Japan hate DPRK.

49. Feelings towards Japan, by City DalianNanjing National Average

50. Comments on Japan Society One professor in Nanjing believed Japanese look down on Chinese, see them as backward. –“We all look the same, but once they saw that were Chinese, they looked down on us.... they were not friendly, and we thought that maybe they had fought against us in the war.” A very patriotic government employee in Dalian was very anti-Japanese because Chinese could not enter Japanese society: –“If you want to enter Japanese society, you must become Japanese, but that would mean betraying my country. One cannot be both Japanese and Chinese at the same time.”

51. Comments on Japan Society, II Several Chinese saw Japan as “bullying society” if people think you are weak, they bully you, but if you are strong, they respect you. True for how Japanese treat Chinese and fellow Japanese. Chinese who succeed in Japan seen by all to be extremely talented and strong-willed. because struggled so hard to succeed, some angry at Japan.

52. Positive Views of Japan, III One returnee spoke very positively about his early days in Japan: –“Before going to Japan, I thought that Japanese people were very troublesome. But once I went there, I saw that it was very good. When we arrived, our Japanese hosts were so well organized.” –“Japanese do things well; we didn’t feel that they were hostile....” –“Japanese people are very humanistic, very detailed. Sometimes they criticize us, but it is not so wrong. When we were in Japan, we opposed Japan, but once we are back here, we feel good about them.”

53. Conclusion For an individual, studying in Japan is an important experience. Vast majority of Chinese saw it positively. What they learned was useful for their careers, and few had much trouble finding a job after returning. Salaries are not very high; could contribute to stress and pressure from parents. But they can find jobs that place them in China’s middle class.

54. Conclusion, II Student exchange benefits both countries. Chinese gain important knowledge and enhance their skills. Japanese joint ventures employ many returned Chinese at all administrative levels. Source of jobs for 25% of our returnees. Education in Japan enhances Sino- Japanese relations, as Chinese who lived in Japan and returned to China feel rather positive about Japan.