1. Last Week: Heat Exchangers Refrigeration This Week: More on Refrigeration Combustion and Steam Pasteurization Steam Raising and Combustion

2. Refrigeration Condenser Evaporator Compressor Q out Q in W in

3. Refrigeration Cond Comp Q out W in Fermenting Room Lagering Cellar Cooler Hop Storage Cooler Flash Tank Evaporator Secondary Refrigerant Storage Tank Wort Cooler Fermenting Vessels Green Beer Chiller Beer Chiller Pasteurizer Yeast Tanks Air Conditioning

4. Primary Refrigerants Ammonia, R-12, R-134a Saturation temp < Desired application temp 2 to 8  C Maturation tanks 0 to 1  C Beer Chillers -15 to -20  C CO 2 liquefaction Typically confined to small region of brewery Secondary Refrigerants Water with alcohol or salt solutions Methanol/glycol, potassium carbonate, NaCl Lower freezing temperature of water Non-toxic (heat exchange with product) Pumped long distances across brewery

5. Example 1 A maturation tank is maintained at 6  C using a secondary refrigerant (glycol/water solution). The cylindrical tank has a diameter of 3 m and a length of 6 m. The air temperature in the room is 18  C and the overall heat transfer coefficient between the maturation tank and surroundings is 12 W/m 2 K. Determine the rate of heat gain to the maturation tank. The glycol water solution is supplied from a storage tank at -10  C, it exits the maturation tank at 2  C and its specific heat is 3.5 kJ/kg.K. Determine the mass flow rate of secondary refrigerant required.

6. Example 2 A brewery refrigeration unit has to meet the following cooling duties simultaneusly. 1.Cool 800 hL of wort from 35 to 8  C in two hours 2.Maintain two cold rooms at 0  C – 40 kW ea. 3.Lager chiller cooling 50 m 3 /hr of product to 0  C – 500 kW 4.Beer chiller cooling 50 m 3 /hr of product to 5  C – 250 kW 5.Air conditioning, hop stores and yeast tanks – 100 kW If the primary circuit uses R-134a and the secondary circuit uses 22.5% sodium chloride, estimate, stating all assumptions that you make, the maximum flow rates of R-134a and brine and the refrigerant compressor power. Specific heat of brine – 3.7 kJ/kg.K. Min temp diff in evap and condenser, 20  C Cooling water temp to condenser, 15  C

7. Wort Boiling Importance Flavor development Trub formation Wort stabilization Wort concentration Time and temperature – color, flavor, sterilization, etc. Turbulence – trub formation and volatile removal Rolling boil required. Temperature above boiling (  C) Heat transfer coef. Interface Evaporation (forced convection) <2  C Film Boiling >25  C Bubbles (nucleate boiling) 2  C <  T < 25  C

8. Wort Boiling In wort boiling it is important to maintain a temperature difference below the critical difference between the wort and heating element surface (25  C) If the wort is boiling at 105  C, calculate the maximum operational steam pressure you would recommend for an indirect steam heated wort boiler. The wall of the steam heating element is 1.0 mm thick and has a thermal conductivity of 15 W/m.K. The condensing steam’s heat transfer coefficient is 12,000 W/m2.K and the maximum heat flux is 160,000 W/m 2. 0.35 MPa 139.0  C 0.40 MPa 143.5  C 0.45 MPa 148.0  C 0.50 MPa 152.0  C 0.55 MPa 155.5  C 0.60 MPa 159.0  C 0.65 MPa 162.0  C

9. Combustion Fuel + Oxidizer  Heat + Products Oxidizer: Air (79% N 2, 21% O 2 by Volume) Fuels: Typically hydrocarbons MethaneCH 4 EthaneC 2 H 6 Gases PropaneC 3 H 8 Natural Gas = 95% CH 4 ButaneC 4 H 10 C 6 – C 18 Liquids Gasoline (Average C 8 ) Fuel Oil No. 1 (Kerosene) Fuel Oil No. 2 (  Diesel) Fuel Oil No. 3-6 (Heating Oils)

10. Combustion To Balance Stoichiometric Combustion Reaction: 1. Balance Carbon (CO 2 in products) 2. Balance Hydrogen (H 2 O in products) 3. Balance Oxygen (O 2 in reactants) 4. Balance Nitrogen (N 2 in products) Example: (a) Determine the theoretical quantity of air required for combustion of natural gas. Give results in kg of air per kg of natural gas. Assume that natural gas is 100% CH 4. (b) Determine the mass of CO 2 emitted per kg of natural gas burned.

11. Combustion Actual combustion process  Excess air Complete combustion (reduce CO, UHC) Reduce flame temperature (reduce NOx) Example: Determine the composition of CH 4 combustion products with 25% excess air.

12. Combustion Flue gas analysis – Work backwards to find % excess air. Example: Determine the excess air used for CH 4 combustion when the O 2 concentration in the products is 5.5% volume. (Note, for ideal gas mixtures, volume fraction = mole fraction). Calorific Value of Fuels (= Heating Value) Solids, Liquid: MJ/kg Gases: MJ/m 3 LHV = H 2 O vapor in products, HHV = liquid

13. Steam High latent heat, cheap, non-toxic, available

14. Combustion/Steam Problem A 5 m 3 wort kettle is heated from 70  C to 95  C with steam at 3 bar (gauge) in an external heating jacket. The steam enters as saturated vapor and it exits as saturated liquid. Natural gas (LHV = 40 MJ/kg). a. Calculate the total mass of steam required for the heating process. b. What mass of fuel is required and what will the fuel cost be if natural gas can be purchased for $1.00/Therm (1 Therm = 100,000 BTU)

15. Pasteurization Microorganisms growing in beer Wild yeast strains Lactic acid bacteria N o – Homogeneous population of microbes N – Remaining number of microbes t – time in minutes D – Decimal reduction time at temperature T Time (min)Number of microbes per Liter 010,000 21,000 4100 81 100.1

16. Pasteurization Typically choose D value of most resistant organism 1.0 P.U. = “one minute of heating at 60  C” An average Z value of 6.94  C is used

17. Flash Pasteurization Time (min) 0.1 1 10 100 50 60 70 Temperature (  C) Over Pasteurization Under Pasteurization Minimum Safe Pasteurization 5.6 min

18. Pasteurization For the data given below, calculate the total number of pasteurization units (PU). Assume a Z value of 6.94  C. What type of pasteurizer is this? MinuteMean Temp (  C) PU’s 2149.7 2253.0 2355.9 2458.3 2560.2 2661.5 2762.25 2862.65 MinuteMean Temp (  C) PU’s 29-3462.8 3562.6 3661.2 3758.6 3856 3953.7 4051.75 4150 Total

19. Flash Pasteurization Beer in = 0  C Pasteurizer 60-70  C 30 sec - 2 min 90-96% regeneration

20. Flash Pasteurization Pressure (Bar) Temperature (  C) Time (sec) Pressure in Pasteurizer CO 2 equilibrium pressure Temperature in Pasteurizer

21. Flash Pasteurization Typical Conditions: Beer inlet:3  C Outlet from regenerative heating:66  C Holding tube:70  C Outlet from regenerative cooling:8  C Outlet from cooling section:3  C Holding Time:30 sec Advantages Little space required Relatively inexpensive equipment and operation Short time at “intermediate” temperatures where chemical changes occur without pasteurization

22. Tunnel Pasteurization Pasteurized after bottled or canned Bottles or cans move slowly down conveyer system Hot water sprays heat beer to pasteurization temperature Cool water sprays cool beer after pasteurization is complete Pressure builds in headspace - Volume of headspace - CO 2 concentration in beer Bottles could break (Typical 1 in 500) CO 2 could leak if bottles are not sealed well

23. Tunnel Pasteurization Pressure (Bar) Temperature (  C) Time (min) Spray water temperature Product Temperature

24. Tunnel Pasteurization Simpler system than flash pasteurization Slow process (may take up to 40 minutes) Energy intensive process Beer near outside of can/bottle over pasteurized Mechanical failure, other stoppage could cause over pasteurization, effecting beer flavor