2. U5AEA15 AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES-II PREPARED BY Mr.S.Karthikeyan DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICALENGINEERING ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

3. We have looked at.. Airfoil Nomenclature Lift and Drag forces Lift, Drag and Pressure Coefficients The Three Sources of Drag: –skin friction drag in laminar and turbulent flow –form drag –wave drag

4. Airfoil Drag Polar C d vs. C l Rough airfoils have turbulent flow over them, high drag. Smooth airfoils have laminar flow over at least a portion of the surface. Low Drag.

5. Form Drag Source: http://www.allstar.fiu.edu/aerojava/flight46.htm Form drag may be reduced by proper design, and streamlining the shape.

6. Supersonic wave Drag For a given airfoil or wing or aircraft, as the Mach number is increased, the drag begins to increase above a freestream Mach number of 0.8 or so due to shock waves that form around the configuration.

7. Shock waves

8. How can shock waves be minimized? Use wing sweep. Use supercritical airfoils, which keep the flow velocity over the airfoil and the local Mach number from exceeding Mach 1.1 or so. Use area rule- the practice of making the aircraft cross section area (from nose to tail, including the wing) vary as smoothly as possible.

9. How can shock waves be minimized? Use sweep. M= 0.8 0.8cos30  30  sweep

10. In your design... The Maximum Mach number is 0.85 Wings for supersonic fighters are designed to reduce wave drag up to 80% of the Maximum speed. In our case, 80% of 0.85 is 0.68. If we use a wing leading edge sweep angle of 30 degrees or so, the Mach number normal to the leading edge is 0.68 cos 30° ~ 0.6

11. Effect of Thickness and Sweep on Wave Drag Source: http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-468/ch10-4.htm

12. Supercritical Airfoils Their shape is modified to keep the Mach number on the airfoils from exceeding 1.1 or so, under cruise conditions.

13. Conventional vs. Supercritical Airfoils

14. Wing Drag Since a wing is made up of airfoils, it has –skin friction drag –profile drag –wave drag at high speeds, and –Induced drag due to tip vortices

15. TIP VORTICES

16. Effect of Tip Vortices Downwash

17. Induced Drag Induced drag is caused by the downward rotation of the freestream velocity, which causes a clockwise rotation of the lift force. From AE 2020 theory, e= Oswald efficiency factor

18. Variation of Drag with Speed Induced drag decreases as V increases, because we need less values of C L at high speeds. Other drag forces (form, skin friction, interference) increase. Result: Drag first drops, then rises.

19. At High Values of  Wings Stall We need high C L to take-off and land at low speeds. http://www.zenithair.com/stolch801/design/design.html

20. Achieving High Lift

23. One form of flaps, called Fowler flaps increase the chord length as the flap is deployed.

24. High energy air from the bottom side of the airfoil flows through the gap to the upper side, energizes slow speed molecules, and keeps the flow from stalling. How do slats and flaps help? 1. They increase the camber as and when needed- during take-off and landing.

25. Leading Edge Slats Help avoid stall near the leading edge

26. High Lift also Causes High Drag

27. We have looked at.. Airfoil aerodynamics (Chapter 5) Sources of Drag (Chapter 5) Induced Drag on finite wings (Chapter 5) Wave Drag, Profile Drag, Form drag Airfoil and Aircraft Drag Polar High Lift Devices

28. AERODYNAMIC PERFORMACE Performance is a study to see if the aircraft meets all the requirements. Level Flight (Is there enough thrust and/or power?) Climb Performance (Will it meet the requirement that the aircraft can gain altitude at a required rate given in feet/sec?) Range (How far can it fly without refueling?) Takeoff and Landing Requirements Others… (e.g. Turn radius, Maneuverability…) You will learn to evaluate aircraft performance in AE 3310. Performance engineers are hired by airlines, buyers, and aircraft companies.

29. Your Fighter Has Certain Requirements Level Flight at a Maximum Speed of Mach 2 at 30,000 feet altitude. Range (1500 Nautical Mile Radius with 45 Minutes of Fuel Reserve) Takeoff (6000 foot Runway with a 50 foot obstacle at the end) Landing (6000 foot Runway) Will your fighter do the job?

30. Your transport aircraft has certain requirements, say.. –Payload:150 passengers weighing 205 lb. each including baggage. –Range:1600 nautical miles, with 1 hour reserve. –Cruise Speed: M=0.82 at 35,000 feet. –Takeoff/Landing: FAR 25 field length –5000 feet at an altitude of 5,000 feet on a 95 degrees F day. –Aircraft should be able to land at 85% of Take-off weight Performance calculation is the process where you determine if your design will do the job.

31. Level Flight Performance We assume that the gross weight GW is available. You will know this for your aircraft after Homework Set #4. An estimate of wing area S is assumed to be known (Homework, later in the course). Select a cruise altitude. Compute the speed of sound Select a set of M  : 0.4, 0.6, 0.8…. Find Aircraft Speed = M  times a  Find C L = GW / (1/2 *   * V  2 * S) Find C D = C D,0 + C L 2 /(  AR e) (this info is given in our course) Find Thrust required T = C D * (1/2) *   * V  2 * S Plot Power Required (T times V) or thrust required vs. Speed Plot Power Available for your Engine (number of engines times T times V) or thrust available at this altitude and Speed (Supplied by Engine Manufacturer) Where these two curves cross determines maximum and minimum cruise speeds.

32. Level Flight Performance Aircraft Speed (Knots) Power HP Power Required Power Available with all engines Best speed for longest endurance flights since the least amount of fuel is burned Excess Power

33. Maximum Rate of Climb Find Excess Power from previous figure. This power can be used to increase aircraft potential energy or altitude Rate of Climb=Excess Power/GW Aircraft Speed (Knots) Power HP Excess Power

34. Absolute Ceiling Absolute ceiling is the altitude at which Power available equals power required only at a single speed, and no excess power is available at this speed. Rate of climb is zero. Aircraft Speed (Knots) Power HP Power available Power required

35. Equilibrium Gliding Flight Glide Angle,  W cos  = L W sin  = D D W L Flight Path 

36. Gliding Distance Glide Angle,  Flight Path Ground Altitude h Gliding Distance = h/tan  h * L/D

37. Gliding Flight D=W sin  where  is the equilibrium glide angle. L= W cos  Tan  = D/L Glide distance = h/ tan  = h ( L/D).

38. Cruise Speed for Maximum Range Aircraft Speed (Knots) V  L/D From your level flight performance data plot V  L/D vs. V  As will be seen later, the speed at which V  L/D is maximum gives maximum range. Speed for maximum range

39. Calculation of Range We have selected a cruise V . Over a small period of time dt, the vehicle will travel a distance equal to V  dt The aircraft weight will decrease by dW as fuel is burned. If we know the engine we use, we know the fuel burn rate per pound of thrust T. This ratio is called thrust-specific fuel consumption (Symbol used: sfc or just c). dt = Change in the aircraft weight dW/(fuel burn rate) = dW / (Thrust times c) = dW/(Tc) Distance Traveled during dt=V  dW/(Tc) =V  [W/T](1/c) dW/W

40. Calculation of Range (Contd…) From previous slide: –Distance Traveled during dt=V  [W/T](1/c) dW/W Since T=D and W=L, W/T = L/D The aircraft is usually flown at a fixed L/D. The L/D is kept as high as possible during cruise. –Distance Traveled during dt= V  [L/D](1/c) dW/W

41. Calculation of Range (Contd…) From previous slide: –Distance Traveled during dt= V  [L/D](1/c) dW/W Integrate between start of cruise phase, and end of cruise phase. The aircraft weight changes from W i to W f. Integral of dx/x = log (x) where natural log is used. Range = V  [L/D](1/c) log(W i /W f )

42. Breguet Range Equation Propulsion Group/ Designer Responsibility to choose an engine with a low specific fuel consumption c Aerodynamics Group/ Designer Responsibility to maximize this factor. Structures & Weights Group/ Designer Responsibility to keep W final small.