1. Chapter 9
Sustaining Biodiversity:
The Species Approach

2. The Passenger Pigeon
James Audubon once saw a flock fly over him for 3 straight days! (1813)
Was once the most numerous bird species on earth
Have been extinct in the wild since The last pigeon died in 1914 in the Cincinnati Zoo
Uncontrolled commercial hunting and habitat loss- good to eat, feathers used in pillows, easy to kill
Stool pigeon - a way to attract birds

3. Losses in Biodiversity
Extinction – loss of species; some is natural; if species doesn’t adapt, will die out
5 major extinctions:
Ordovician
Devonian
Permian
Triassic
Cretaceous – 65 mya; 70% of all species

4. The rate at which species are now disappearing is at least 1000 times faster than ever before.
If the present trends continue, it is estimated that between 22-47% of all known plant species could be extinct in the next 50 years. I

5. Golden Toad of Costa Rica, Extinct5

6. Golden Toads
Lived in 4 sq km of high altitude cloud forest in Costa Rica (Monteverde)
First described in 1966
Has not been seen since 1989

7. Possible reasons for extinction
The fungus chytrid
Too many dry days
Climate change and El Nino
Very small range
Heavy dependence on moisture
Because they have sensitive moist skin, frogs and toads are also especially vulnerable to pollution and ultraviolet radiation.
Deforestation

8. Extinction Can Affect One Species or Many Species at a Time
Background extinction – continuous low level
1-5 species becomes extinct for every 1 million species each year. (0.0001%)
1 per million= 1/1,000,000 = species per year
As a percent, X 100 = %
Extinction rate – percentage of species that go extinct within a time period
Today’s extinction rate could be 0.01%- 0.1% if we are losing species 1,000 times faster than ever. We could be losing 14,000 species a year if there are 14 million species 8

9. Mass extinction: loss of many species in a short period of time
(Permian-Triassic Extinction- lost 95%
of all species)
Levels of species extinction-
Local extinction – one area but found elsewhere
Ecological extinction – no longer occupies niche
Biological extinction – completely gone
Dodo- extinct in 1681

10. Causes of extinction:
1. Natural causes – volcano, sea level, change in climate, new predator, disease
2. Human causes –
Habitat destruction – 50%
Pollution – 16%, DDT, oil spills
Hunting/selling – 18%
Introduced species – 16%, kudzu

11. Habitat Loss Is the Greatest Threat to Species
Habitat destruction, degradation, and fragmentation *(deforestation of tropical rain forests is the #1 cause)
Invasive (nonnative) species
Population and resource use growth
Pollution
Climate change
Overexploitation 11

12. NON-NATIVE INTRODUCED (broad definition)
Introduced Species
Aka exotic; alien
Table of terms related to "Introduced Species"
NATIVE
NON-NATIVE INTRODUCED (broad definition)
INDIGENOUS or ENDEMIC
CULTIVATED and LIVESTOCK
Established in the wild INTRODUCED (narrow definition)
INVASIVE (pest)
All others not listed*
*Not listed in any "official" source as a pest species

13. Characteristics of Invader Species and Ecosystems Vulnerable to Invading Species13

14. Some Deliberately Introduced Species Can Disrupt Ecosystems
Many species introductions are beneficial
Food
Shelter
Medicine
Aesthetic enjoyment
Nonnative species may have no natural
Predators
Competitors
Parasites
Pathogens 14

15. Some Harmful Nonnative Species in the United States15

16. Illegal Killing, Capturing, and Selling of Wild Species Threatens Biodiversity
Poaching and smuggling of animals and plants
Animal parts
Pets
Plants for landscaping and enjoyment
Prevention: research and education 16

17. White Rhinoceros Killed by a Poacher17

18. ENDANGERED SPECIES
Endangered species – population is declining to very low levels; if continues will go extinct
Threatened species – population is declining rapidly because of human impacts

19. Endangered Natural Capital: Species Threatened with Premature Extinction19

20. Endangered Species
Often we try to protect “charismatic megafauna” but many others in danger too.
US examples:
Sea turtles (hawksbill, Kemp’s Ridley, loggerhead)
Gray wolf
Florida manatee
Ivory-billed woodpecker
Green pitcher plant
Grizzly bear
Stellar sea lion
Virginia big eared bat
California condor
Gila trout
American crocodile
White Bladder pod
Karner blue butterfly

21. Characteristics of Species That Are Prone to Ecological and Biological Extinction21

22. International Treaties Help to Protect Species
1975: Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)
Signed by 172 countries
Bans hunting, capturing and selling of T&E species
Has helped reduce international trade, but enforcement varies from country to country
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
Focuses on ecosystems
Prevent /control spread of harmful invasives
Ratified by 190 countries (not the U.S.)
No severe penalties or enforcement measures 22

23. Confiscated Products Made from Endangered Species23

24. Endangered Species Act (ESA): 1973 and amended in 1982, 1983, and 1985
U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service keeps list of all threatened and endangered species.
Threatened or endangered animals may not be caught or killed.
Threatened or endangered plants may not be disturbed
Threatened or endangered species and products made from them may not be bought or sold.
The federal government may not construct any project that jeopardizes endangered species. (Tellico Dam, TN)
The Fish & Wildlife Service must prepare a species recovery plan for each threatened or endangered species.

25. ESA- one of the most far-reaching environmental law ever adopted
Species listed only when serious danger of extinction
Takes decades for most species to become endangered or extinct
More than half of the species listed are stable or improving
Budget has been small
Suggested changes to ESA
Increase the budget
Develop recovery plans more quickly
Establish a core of the endangered organism’s survival habitat 25

26. Problems with ESA Difficult to get species on endangered list.
Habitat may be destroyed before it’s studied.
Focuses on individuals not ecosystems.
Controversial

27. Northern Rocky Mountain wolf population – delisted (includes Montana, Idaho, Wyoming)
30 breeding pair goal was reached
Now, wolves can be shot if seen “attacking or molesting” domestic animals.

28. Preserving Biodiversity
Set aside large wilderness areas to preserve ecosystems.
Restrict development
Prevent poaching
Seed banks / germ-plasm banks to maintain crops and other plants
Captive breeding programs (zoos)
Genetic engineering - cloning of species

29. California Condor

30. Facts about the condor Largest bird of prey in the US
Wing span up to 9 feet
Feed only on carrion
Nest in cliff caves in the mountains, large trees and snags
Have only one chick at a time, only every other year
Dependent on parents for over a year
Do not reach sexual maturity until 5-6 years
Were extinct in the wild until 2 populations were found and bred in captivity

31. Causes of Decline Natural Causes Climate change
Restricted range due to shifting of vegetative zones
Loss of ice age megafauna

32. Anthropogenic Causes
Habitat loss due to urbanization, limiting range
Converting grasslands into agriculture
Removing old growth forest leading to…
Loss of food, loss of breeding/nesting habitat
Reduction of food source (bison/deer and elk)
Lead poisoning from shotgun pellets in carrion
Hunting for eggs, skin, trophies, sport, or mistaken identity
At one time, there were only 22 birds in the wild!

33. Measures to protect the species
Legislative measures Lacy Act- prohibits transport of live animal, dead animals or parts across state lines without a federal permit Endangered Species Act CITIES Creation of Wildlife refuges Ban use of specific pesticides (DDT) Artifical population measures Captive breeding/incubation of eggs Public Education Tagging

34. Thanks to the conservation-breeding program, within 20 years the population of California condors grew to almost 200 birds. It took a variety of techniques developed by scientists and bird keepers to do this. Eggs were removed from condor nests, encouraging the females to lay replacement eggs. This is called "double clutching.” The removed eggs were placed in incubators for hatching. To make the hand-raised condors feel like they were being raised by their parents, the newly hatched chicks were fed and cared for using adult look-alike condor puppets. Taped sounds of adult condors were played to the chicks as well. In the wild, both parents incubate the egg and care for the chick, and they may only raise one chick every other year. As of July 31, 2011, there are 399 California condors, including 198 birds currently living in the wild.

35. The Whooping Crane

36. Facts about the whooping crane
They primarily eat crustaceans, small fish, insects, amphibians and reptiles.  They’ll also eat grains, marsh plants and acorns
Are about 6 feet tall
Breed in Canada and winter in Texas
Considered one of the most endangered birds in NA
Lays only 2 eggs at a time

37. Causes of Decline
Habitat loss due to urbanization, wetland destruction, agricultural modification of flyway, natural disasters
Loss of food resources
Food web disruption
Loss of breeding/nesting/migration habitat
Anthropogenic Causes
Hunted for feathers, meat, eggs, skins, trophies, sport or due to mistaken identity

38. Measures to protect the whooping crane
Lacey Act (1900)
ESA
CITIES
Creation of wildlife refuges
Clean Water Act- protects wetlands
Migratory Bird Treaty
Wetland preservation measures

39. More protective measures…
Artificial Population Measures
Captive breeding/incubation of eggs
Teaching of alternative
flyways using ultralights
Public education
Population monitoring
such as tagging, GPS
and public reports of sightings

40. Songbirds- Where have they gone?
Approximately 70% of the nearly 10,000 bird species are declining
12% are threatened with extinction
Main cause is habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation
¾ of birds live in forests
Most dramatic declines are the migratory songbirds (habitat loss and nonnative species such as rats, snakes and mongooses) Collisions with power lines, skyscrapers and communication towers
121 million are hunted, 1 billion fly into glass windows

41. Why care about the birds?
Birds are excellent indicators- they respond quickly to changes in their habitats and are easy to track and count
Control rodent/insect populations
Remove dead animal carcasses
Spread plants throughout their habitats by pollination and excreting seeds

42. Robins, blackbirds and starlings prosper around humans

43. Why protect the Condor or any species?
Ecologically
Maintain biodiversity – genetic diversity, synergism with other species, keystone species
Niche value- matter cycling, trophic level
Economically
Ecotourism
reestablish population for commercial harvest (fish)
Has an intrinsic value
Value based on its existence, regardless of its usefulness

44. Why not protect the condor or any other species?
Ecologically
background extinction
Focus is on the species and not habitat
Another species may occupy the same fundamental niche
Economically
Expensive due to fund, developmental restrictions, decrease value of land
Goods produced from have value (ivory, skin)
Dangerous or destructive to humans/property

45. The IUCN Red List International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
is an international organization dedicated to finding “pragmatic solutions to our most pressing environment and development challenges.” The organization publishes the IUCN Red List, compiling information from a network of conservation organizations to rate which species are most endangered. It is s widely recognized as the most comprehensive, objective, global approach for evaluating the conservation status of plant and animal species.

46. The goals are to:
Identify and document those species most in need of conservation attention if global extinction rates are to be reduced; and
Provide a global index of the state of change of biodiversity.

47. The percentage of species in several groups which are listed as critically endangered, endangered, or vulnerable on the 2007 IUCN Red List
Critically endangered endangered vulnerable

48. ALWAYS AN ISSUE… Developers vs environmentalists
Human needs vs biodiversity protection (jobs and survival)

49. Threatened and Endangered species show us that our world may not be as healthy as we think.

50. Do You Think Humans Should Try to Prevent The Extinction of Other Species?