1. ANIMAL BEHAVIOR

2. Introduction The behavior represents the interface between an animal and its environment. Behavioral responses are usually the most flexible and are a rapid way for the animal to promote survival.

3. Ethology is the study of animal behavior in the animal ’ s natural habitat.

4. Livestock and poultry producers need to be knowledgeable of animal behavior patterns so they can more effectively and efficiently manage and train livestock. Management of animal behavior can influence the animal ’ s economic production.

5. Factors Determining Behavior Personality or disposition differs with each animal. Genetics and environment are two major factors that determine or influence an animal ’ s disposition.

6. Genetics and instincts cannot be altered, but producers can do something about the environmental situation. Modifying the local environment to cater to particular livestock or poultry needs can improve animal production.

7. Many animal behaviors are a result of the interactions between the genetics with which an animal is born and its environment, which is influenced by imprinting, photoperiod, and social grouping.

8. Simple and complex behaviors include: Instinct, Habituation, Conditioning, Reasoning, Intelligence, and Imprinting.

9. Instinct – unlearned behaviors that an animal exhibits from time of birth. Instincts or reflexes seem to be preprogrammed in the central nervous system to respond to specific stimuli in certain ways.

10. At birth, all mammals have the instinct to nurse. A mother has an instinct to care for her young. Photo by M. Jasek.

11. Habituation – gradual adaptive responses to certain stimuli or to the environment; “ getting used to ” or ignoring certain stimuli.

12. Conditioning – a learned response that is developed when an animal is rewarded for making the proper response to a stimuli. Example: Cattle learn to come when called (stimuli) at feeding time because they are rewarded with feed.

13. Reasoning – the animal ’ s ability to respond correctly to a stimulus when presented with a new situation.

14. Intelligence – the animal ’ s ability to learn to adjust successfully to certain situations.

15. Imprinting – early-age learning where young animals bond with their mothers or parents and learn to associate members of their own species or even with humans and other species. Photo by Bruce Fritz courtesy of USDA Agricultural Research Service.

16. Imprinting is a critical period that varies in length for different species. Exposing animals to humans during this time decreases stress on the animals during their future contacts with people.

17. Lambs should be first handled by humans two days after birth. For horses, the first 42 days of life are most important for human contact.

18. Extended contact over the first nine months of life is the best time to accustom cattle to humans.

19. Types of Behavior Understanding animal behavior helps a producer analyze the results of animal nutrition, physiology, breeding, and management.

20. Comprehending behavior increases the efficiency of labor, limits handling problems, decreases accidents to humans and other animals, and increases the well- being and productivity of livestock.

21. The following behaviors are the most influential to an animal ’ s welfare, productivity, and profitability: Sexual, Maternal, Communication, Social, Feeding, Shelter-seeking, Investigative, Allelomimetic, and Fear.

22. Sexual Behavior – behavior in animals related to courtship and mating. “ Standing heat ” or estrus is an observable condition that helps identify cows that are ready for breeding.

23. Cows that are in heat exhibit symptoms such as allowing themselves to be mounted by other cattle, trying to mount other cows, acting nervously, seeking out the bull, allowing chin-resting on her rump, and raising the tail. Isolated cows in estrus may be restless, walk the fence, and bawl.

24. Producers use standing heat to determine appropriate time for artificial insemination.

25. The bull is attracted to a particular cow in a herd by viewing cow-to- cow mounting. Bulls are also attracted to cows by olfactory cues. Pheromones in vaginal secretions and in urine are detected by the males through smell.

26. When a cow reaches full heat, she allows a bull to mount.

27. Females are receptive for varying lengths of time. Cows are usually in heat for approximately 16 hours, ewes and nannies for 24 to 36 hours, and mares for 5 to 7 days. Ewes may show silent heat; that is, they have no outward signs to indicate that they are in heat.

28. A boar does not seem to detect a sow that is in heat by smell or sight. If a boar is introduced to a group of sows, he will chase any sow, whether she is in heat or not. When courting the female, the boar will nudge her in the flanks or around the head and then attempt to mount.

29. A sow that is in heat will seek out the boar for mating. The sow may show outward signs of estrus, such as restlessness, urinating frequently, attempting to mount other sows, and loud grunting.

30. Livestock tend to be polygamous; that is, they breed freely without a particular mate. Poultry do exhibit preferential mating. Both male and female poultry may refuse to mate with certain females and males, respectively.

31. The sex of an animal relates to behavioral patterns. Castration changes behavior. Non-castrated, or intact, males are more aggressive in behavior. Castrated males are more docile.

32. Maternal Behavior – livestock mothers exhibit behaviors that provide care for babies at birth. Photo by Christine Stetter

33. With cattle, sheep, goats, and horses, the mothers lick their young to clean them off. This licking stimulates blood circulation and encourages the young to stand and nurse.

34. A sow does not lick her young, but does lie down and move her feet to encourage her young to nurse.

35. Cows, sows, and mares normally become very aggressive in protecting their young.

36. The ewe and lamb, as well as, the cow and calf have particularly strong attachments.

37. When beef cows and ewes decrease their milk production, care giving declines to force the young to search for forage. This occurs approximately 100-120 days after birth with cows and 60- 75 days after birth with ewes.

38. Communication Behavior – any of the senses can be used for communication. Smell helps a mother identify her offspring. Distress calls are used by young when separated from their mothers and by adults when under stress.

39. Farms animals respond to calls or whistles used by the producer when it is feeding time. The animals learn that the sound (stimulus) relates to being fed (reward).

40. Social Behavior – livestock exhibit social behavior when they are in physical contact with other animals or when humans are present. These behaviors can be aggressive or passive.

41. Interaction with other animals: Male farm animals fight when they meet other unfamiliar males of the same species, unless they are castrated.

42. Females fight less than males, but they generally develop a social ranking, or pecking order. Social ranks normally exist in herds of cows, goats, sheep, and horses, as well as, in flocks of poultry.

43. Factors affecting social rank include: age, size, strength, genetic background, and previous experience.

44. Horned cows usually outrank polled or dehorned cows, especially when space is limited.

45. Interactions with humans: An animal ’ s response to human interaction or handling determines the animal ’ s disposition, which can range from docile to wild. Disposition is a result of inherited characteristics, as well as, previous human treatment of the animal.

46. Producers should treat animals with care to promote a positive disposition. Animals with extremely wild disposition should be culled from the herd.

47. Animals with wild dispositions are a threat to personal safety, may damage facilities, and can excite/injure other animals. Nervous, excitable cattle have lower weight gains and greater incidence of dark cutters and tough meat than do calmer cattle.

48. A person should know an animal ’ s disposition before making initial contact with the animal.

49. Behavior during handling and restraint: Knowledge of animal behavior is important for safety and for decreasing the stress on both the producer and the animal.

50. The ease of handling animals depends on the disposition and size of the animal, previous experience with the animal, and design of the handling facilities.

51. Most animals have a flight zone, or personal space. When another animal or a person moves inside this zone, the animal normally moves away.

52. An animal also has a point of balance, which is the shoulder. An animal moves forward, if a handler stands behind the point of the shoulder and moves backward, if a handler is in front of the point of balance.

53. Cattle have orbital vision (their field of view ranges from 310º to 360º), making them sensitive to shadows and abrupt movements. Cattle also have blind spots directly in front and behind and may charge or kick, if approached from the front or rear.

55. Curved chutes with solid sides are appropriate for cattle.

56. When working with cattle, a producer should eliminate strange odors and noises (especially high- pitched noises) and refrain from waving the arms and hands.

57. Cattle and horses do not like to enter darkened areas. That is why it is important to open a window or door on a trailer when loading an animal.

58. Livestock follow the leader in a single file in a partially empty chute and they will move forward to fill in a vacant space.

59. Feeding Behavior – feed preferences and length of grazing and rumination are behaviors related feeding.

60. Sheep and goats graze 9 to 11 hours per day, while cattle graze 4 to 9 hours per day. Animals will graze more heavily near a water source.

61. Age of animal and weather conditions affect grazing behavior. Animals usually eat less during extremely hot or cold temperatures.

62. Following grazing, ruminants will rest and ruminate (chew cud). Sheep ruminate 7 to 10 hours per day; cattle ruminate 4 to 9 hours per day.

63. Animals develop feed preferences by identifying nutritious feeds and avoiding toxic materials. This behavior is learned by young from being around their mothers or other animals. Young animals will try new feeds.

64. Shelter-Seeking Behavior – animals vary in the behaviors they exhibit during hot and cold weather. Hogs try to find a wet area when it is hot.

65. Sheep and cattle prefer shady areas for rest and rumination when it is hot and tend to crowd together during cold weather.

66. Investigative Behavior – animals tend to be curious, but cautious, when approaching humans or investigating strange objects. Horses, dairy goats, pigs, and cattle tend to be more curious investigators. Sheep are generally more timid and less curious.

67. Allelomimetic Behavior – behavior in which animals tend to do the same thing at the same time. Ruminants normally graze, rest, and ruminate together at the same time.

68. Cattle grazing on large range areas tend to gather together at the watering place at the same time of day. This behavior helps the producer monitor all the animals at one time, which is especially useful in detecting females in heat for artificial breeding systems.

69. Fear Mechanisms – fear is a survival emotion that motivates animals to flee from danger. Livestock may develop permanent fear memories. Fear memory problems usually occur in flighty, excitable horses and cattle.

70. By making new experiences for animals pleasant, producers can handle animals in a calm manner at a later time.

71. Abnormal Behavior Knowledge of normal behavior of livestock allows an observant producer to detect abnormalities. Abnormal behavior can be used to identify clues to illness, stress, inadequate nutrition, and other problems.

72. Stress and sickness are two of the main causes of inappropriate or unusual behavior.

73. Stress is any environmental factor that can cause major changes in the animal ’ s physiological processes, including: low or high temperatures; nutritional deficiencies; dust; fatigue; weaning;

74. transportation; dehorning; docking; castration; abusive or excessive handling; social aggression; and overcrowded living conditions.

75. When handling livestock, producers can reduce stress by creating social identification with the animals through routine physical contact with the animal (stroking, scratching, and patting) and use of voice or gestures.

76. Prolonged stress is detrimental to the body ’ s immune system and reduces resistance to diseases. Identifying sick animals and isolating them from healthy animals allows the producer to treat animals in early stages of sickness, when they are more likely to recover, and prevent more animals from getting sick.

77. Symptoms of a sick animal include: Loss of appetite; Restlessness and depression; Ears droop or not in an alert position; Humped back with a lowered head;

78. Isolation (stays away from the herd); Coughing, wheezing, or labored breathing; and Vital signs differ from normal ranges.

79. Normal Vital Signs of Livestock Producers should know the normal vital signs of their livestock. Drastic extremes from the normal ranges are serious threats to an animal ’ s health.

80. Vital Sign Cattle Chicken Horse Sheep Swine Rectal temp. (ºF) Avg. & Range 100.5 100.4-102.8 107.1 105.0-109.4 100.0 99.1-100.8 102.3 100.9-103.8 102.5 101.6-103.6 Avg. respiration rate per minute 3012-36121916 Avg. heart rate per minute 50275457560 Normal Vital Signs

81. Body temperature – an elevated body temperature can be caused by infectious diseases, as well as, excitement, exercise, digestion, rest, and high environmental temperatures. A more serious situation is a sick animal with a body temperature below the normal range.

82. Respiration Rate – the respiration rate of an animal varies with excitement, exertion, and size of the animal. An increased respiration rate is a concern if it is due to fever, pain, weakness, infection, or lung ailment.

83. Pulse (Heart) Rate – the size and age of an animal influences their pulse rate, as does exercise, excitement, digestion, and elevated body temperature. Younger animals tend to have more rapid pulse rates. Smaller animals tend to have more rapid pulse rates.

84. Summary Knowledge of animal behavior will help producers to be more efficient in managing livestock enterprises which will be safer and more productive.