1. AP Psychology
3.1 Learning

2. Learning
A lasting change in behavior or mental processes as the result of an experience
Behavior can be observed
Mental processes are more difficult to study

3. Instincts vs. Learning Instincts Learning
Instincts are unlearned behaviors due to evolutionary programming that are found in almost all members of a species
Example…bears hibernate, geese migrate, salmon swim upstream to spawn
Humans…debated, but…
Grasping reflex, sucking reflex, pull hand away from fire, blinking
Represents a significant evolutionary advance over instinctive behavior
Enables humans to acquire new knowledge that can be transferred from one generation to another

5. Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov ( )
Russian (later Soviet) physiologist who was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1904 for his research on the digestive system of dogs
While conducting experiments…Pavlov noticed that his dogs tended to salivate before food was actually delivered to their mouths

7. Classical Conditioning
Spent 3 decades…532 experiments to studying classical conditioning
Discovered classical conditioning (because first to be extensively studied in psych)
Condition = learned
Elicit = cause / produce / bring forth

12. 5 Components of Classical Conditioning
1. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) (US)
natural stimulus that reflexively elicits a response without the need for prior learning
Pavlov used food as the US because it produced naturally occurring salivation reflex
Unlearned stimulus = automatic

13. 5 Components of Classical Conditioning
2. Unconditioned Response (UCR) (UR)
Unlearned response that is elicited by an US
In Pavlov’s experiments, salivation was the UR

14. 5 Components of Classical Conditioning
3. Neutral Stimulus (NS)
Any stimulus that produces no conditioned response prior to learning
In Pavlov’s experiments a ringing bell was originally a neutral stimulus.

15. 5 Components of Classical Conditioning
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
- The CS was originally the NS.
When systematically paired with the US, the NS becomes a conditioned (learned) stimulus as it gains the power to cause a response
In Pavlov’s experiments, the ringing bell became a CS when it began to produce the same salivating response that the food once produced

16. 5 Components of Classical Conditioning
5. Conditioned Response (CR)
A CR is a learned response elicited by the CS
Pavlov called the process by which a CS elicits a CR “acquisition”
In Pavlov’s experiments, he paired the ringing bell with food. Originally a NS, the ringing bell became a CS when the dog reacted with a CR by salivating
The dog’s salivation was both an UR and CR
**CC is most efficient when the CS immediately precedes the US**

22. Example of CC Toilet flush and shower US – hot water UR – jumping back
NS – originally the toilet flush
CS – becomes the toilet flush
CR – jumping back

23. John B. Watson – “Little Albert”
Taught baby Albert to fear a rat
NS - Rat
Reflex: US (loud noise)  UR (cry)
Acquisition: NS + US  UR
Acq. Demonstrated:
CS (rat)  CR (cry)
Shows how phobias and human emotions develop

24. Extinction
Gradual weakening of a conditioned behavior when the CS is not followed by the US
Example…Pavlov presented the ringing bell without food --- as a result, the ringing bell gradually lost its power to elicit the CR of salivation

25. Spontaneous Recovery
The reappearance of an extinguished CR after a time delay
Example…Pavlov discovered that after a period of time, his dogs began salivating when they heard the sound of the bell **Note – the CR reappears at a lower intensity
This shows how difficult it can be to eliminate a CR

26. Generalization
Occurs when stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus also elicit the CR (when a new stimulus was not paired with the US
Example…Pavlov found that a dog conditioned to a low-pitched tone would also respond to a high-pitched tone

27. Discrimination Ability to distinguish between two similar stimuli
Example…students have learned different responses to the sound of bells in the classroom, cell phones, and front doors
Example…gardeners demonstrate discrimination when they respond differently to weeds and to flowers

28. Generalization/Discrimination
Example…
A young boy is bitten by his neighbors dog
He runs away when he sees any neighborhood dog (Generalization)
He still enjoys playing with his family's pet collie (Discrimination)

29. Higher-order conditioning
Aka – second-order conditioning
A CS from one learning trial is paired with a new
The new US becomes the new CS capable of eliciting the CR even though it has never been paired with the US
Example… Pavlov CC a dog to salivate to the sound of a ticking metronome . He then paired the metronome with a black square. After several pairings, the black square produce salivation even though it had never been paired with food.

30. A rat has already been conditioned to associate the blue stick with a cat odor(US). A red light is flashed on before the blue stick is placed in its cage. The rat displays a second-order conditioned response when just the red tight is turned on.

31. Taste Aversion
A CC dislike for and avoidance of a particular food that develops when an organism becomes ill after eating the food
Many people have experienced vivid examples of taster aversion

32. Taste Aversion Aka – Aversive Conditioning NS: food
Reflex: US (stomach virus) UR (vomiting)
Acquisition: NS + US  UR
Acq. Demonstrated:
CS (food)  CR (vomiting – sick)

33. Taste Aversion John Garcia experiments (1917)
Conducted experiments to demonstrate that taste aversions could be produced in laboratory rats
NS (saccharin-flavored water)
US (drug) -> UR (gastrointestinal distress)
After recovering from illness, the rats refused to drink the flavored water (taste aversion)

35. Taste Aversion Garcia’s findings challenged two basic principles of CC
1. conditioning only required a single pairing
2. conditioning does not always need to be separated by seconds – he separated the stimuli by several hours
**demonstrated there are biological constraints on conditioning!

36. Taste Aversion
Example – Wolves and Sheep

37. Operant Conditioning Limitations on Classical Conditioning…
CC focuses on existing reflexive behaviors that are automatically elicited
Learning, however, involves new behaviors or voluntary actions that classical conditioning cannot explain

38. Edward L. Thorndike
His studies on baby chicks and cats were the first systematic investigation of animal learning
Focused on how voluntary behaviors are influenced by their consequences

39. Thorndike and the Law of Effect
Responses that lead to satisfying outcomes are more likely to be repeated
Responses followed by unpleasant outcomes are less likely to be repeated

40. Thorndike – “Cat in a Puzzle Box”

41. BF Skinner
Behaviorist who believed that psychologists should focus on observable behavior that could be objectively measured and verified

42. Skinner and Operant Conditioning
Formulated the principle of Operant Conditioning
OC – any “active behavior that operated upon the environment to generate consequences”
OC is a learning process in which behavior is shaped and maintained by consequences (rewards or punishments) that follow a response
CC (SR) / OC (RS)

43. Skinner Box
The box is a chamber that includes at least one lever, bar, or key that the animal can manipulate.
When the lever is pressed, food, water, or some other type of reinforcement might be dispensed.
Other stimuli can also be presented including lights, sounds, and images.
In some instances, the floor of the chamber may be electrified

44. Skinner Box

45. Operant Conditioning: Reinforcement
Reinforcement occurs when a stimulus (reinforcer) follows an active behavior or response
The reinforcer increases the probability that the behavior or response will be repeated

46. Positive Reinforcement
Behavior is followed by the addition of reinforcing stimulus
Stimulus increases the probability that the response will occur again
NOTE – positive does not mean “good” or “desirable”
Positive like a “+” sign
Indicates a response is strengthened because something is added

48. Examples of “+” Reinforcement
Flawless performance is school play (the operant) / your drama coach applauds and exclaims “Bravo!” reinforcing stimulus)
You earn a “A” on an AP Psychology Test (the operant) / your teacher writes you a letter (reinforcing stimulus))

49. Negative Reinforcement
Behavior or response is followed by the removal of an adverse stimulus
NOTE - negative does not mean “bad” or “undesirable”
Negative like a “-” sign
Indicates that a response is strengthened because something is subtracted or removed

51. Examples of “-” Reinforcement
You take out the garbage (the operant) to avoid your mother’s repeated nagging (aversive stimulus)
You put on sunscreen (the operant) to avoid getting sunburned (aversive stimulus)
You give your little brother a candy bar (the operant) to prevent him from crying (aversive stimulus)
Your little sister is crying (the operant), you hug her and she stops crying (aversive stimulus)

54. Premack Principle David Premack
Stated that the opportunity to engage in a preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less-preferred activity

56. Premack Principle Examples
You enjoy playing video games far more than studying for the ACT.
Knowing this, you tie the less-preferred activity (studying for the ACT) to your preferred activity (playing video games)
You enjoy eating ice cream for dessert far more than eating vegetables.
Knowing this, your mother ties the less-desired activity (eating veggies) to your preferred activity (eating ice cream)

57. Types of Reinforcers Primary Reinforcers Secondary Reinforcers
Naturally reinforcing for a species
Ex…food, water, shelter, sex
Secondary Reinforcers
Gains effectiveness by a learned association with primary reinforcers
Ex…money

58. Types of Reinforcers Token Economy
Individuals rewarded with tokens that can act as secondary reinforcers.
The tokens can be redeemed for rewards and priveledges
Elementary Teachers – gold stars

59. Continuous Reinforcement
Reinforcement schedule in which all correct responses are reinforced
Responses extinguish faster when they are learned through this

60. Shaping
Technique of strengthening behavior by reinforcing successive approximations of a behavior until the entire correct routine is displayed
Used by athletic coaches and animal trainers

61. Intermittent Reinforcement
Rewarding of some, but not all, correct responses
Advantages
Most efficient way to maintain behaviors already learned
Are very resistant to extinction
Example – Gambling (very difficult habit to extinguish)

62. Schedule of Reinforcement
Ratio Schedules
Interval Schedules
Based on number of responses
Fixed ratio
Variable ration
Based on responses made within a certain time period
Fixed interval
Variable interval

63. Fixed Ratio Schedule
Reinforcement occurs after a predetermined set of responses
Produce high response rates (brief drop-off after reinforcement)
Examples…
an employer pays workers every three baskets of fruit
Mario Bros – 100 coins = life

64. Variable Ratio Schedule
Reinforcement is unpredictable because the ratio varies
High response rates and resistant to extinction
Examples…
Casino slot machines
Golf
Door-to-door salesman

65. Fixed Interval Schedule
Reinforcement occurs after a predetermined time has elapsed
Moderate response rates followed by a flurry of activity near the end of each interval
Examples…
Employers paying employees every two weeks
Teachers who give a quiz every week
Baking a cake

66. Variable Interval Schedule
Reinforcement occurs unpredictably since the time interval varies
Produce low but steady response rates
Examples…
Teachers and pop quizzes
Fishing
Parent attending to children crying

68. Punishment
Process by which a behavior is followed by an aversive consequence that decreases the likelihood the behavior being repeated.
Is NOT the same as reinforcement
Punishment decreases the likelihood of a behavior
Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior

69. Positive Punishment
Application or adding of an aversive stimulus after a response
Examples…
You arrive late for work (operant) you are docked pay (aversive stimulus)
You show off your knowledge by answering all the teacher’s questions (operant) a popular girl makes a snide remark about you (aversive stimulus)

70. Negative Punishment (Omission Training)
Removal or subtraction of a reinforcing stimulus (privilege)
NOT negative reinforcement!
Negative punishment makes a behavior less likely to happen
Negative reinforcement makes a behavior more likely to happen
Examples…
You arrive at work late (operant) and are sent home without pay (loss of reinforcing stimulus)
You show off your knowledge by answering all the teacher’s questions (operant) and the popular girl doesn’t invite you to her party (loss of reinforcing stimulus)
Person who was caught driving while intoxicated also loses her driver’s license

71. Drawbacks of Punishment
Can produce undesirable results (fear, hostility, aggression)
Often produces temporary change
Can produce Learned Helplessness
Occurs when a learner feels that it is impossible to escape punishment
Leads to passive feeling hopelessness that may lead to depression
Example…
A student is doing poorly in AP Psych
“No matter what I do, I’m going to fail”

73. Effective Use of Punishment
Should be delivered immediately after the offensive behavior
Should be certain
Should be limited and sufficient so that it “fits the crime”
Should focus on the behavior, not the character, or the offender

74. Comparing CC and OC Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning
Pioneers
Pavlov and Watson
Types of Behavior
Involuntary responses
Timing of Stimuli
Precedes the response
S  R
Use of Rewards/Punishment
Does not use
Pioneers
Thorndike and Skinner
Types of Behavior
Voluntary responses
Timing of Stimuli
Follows the response
R  S
Use of Rewards/Punishment
Based on