1. © Cambridge University Press 2011 Chapter 1 The problem of knowledge

2. © Cambridge University Press 2011 Value judgements Our personal mental map of reality determines what we perceive to be: –true/false –reasonable/unreasonable –right/wrong. These are value judgements or opinions. TOK applies critical analysis to highlight the limitations of how we think about things.

3. © Cambridge University Press 2011 The paradox of cartography Mercator Projection = traditional world map –Poles look bigger. –Northern hemisphere is at the top so looks more important. –Centred on Europe/Africa. Hobo-Dyer Equal Area Projection –Relative land sizes are more accurate. –Southern hemisphere is at the top. –Centred on Pacific. –Changes perception of the importance of countries.

4. © Cambridge University Press 2011 Maps: conclusion All maps distort reality. The map is not the territory; it is just an attempt to represent it. Distortion on maps can distort other views/opinions/decisions.

5. © Cambridge University Press 2011 Certainty: discussion Many ‘facts’ may be questionable, e.g.: Did Neil Armstrong land on the moon? Strawberries are red. If a > b and b > c then a > c. Murder is wrong.

6. © Cambridge University Press 2011 Ways of knowing Perception Language Emotion Reason

7. © Cambridge University Press 2011 1 Perception Can our senses deceive us? Are everyone’s senses the same?

8. © Cambridge University Press 2011 2 Language How do we know that what we find out in words is true? Are other people reliable sources of knowledge?

9. © Cambridge University Press 2011 3 Emotion Intuition/gut feeling is not always 100% reliable.

10. © Cambridge University Press 2011 4 Reason Lots of people struggle with logic, especially mathematical logic.

11. © Cambridge University Press 2011 Radical doubt Is life just a dream?

12. © Cambridge University Press 2011 Relativism The relativist argument: There is no absolute truth, so truth may be considered relative to culture or individuals. What is true for some people is false for others. Relativism allows both views to be valid.

13. © Cambridge University Press 2011 Relativism: the counter-argument Truth can be considered to be what someone really believes. However, belief does not make something really true. For example, Santa Claus does not actually exist even if you really believe in him. This means that relativism cannot be true. (Unless you argue that it is true for people who believe in it!)

14. © Cambridge University Press 2011 What should we believe? There is a problem with the word ‘should’, which implies subjective judgement. TOK is more interested in how you believe.

15. © Cambridge University Press 2011 Judgement, gullibility, scepticism The role of judgement Assess evidence → provisional conclusion. The danger of gullibility At what point do you start questioning what you read/hear? The danger of scepticism May mean you close your mind to new ideas if they do not agree with currently accepted theories.

16. © Cambridge University Press 2011 Reasonable knowledge There are two criteria for deciding whether a claim is reasonable: –evidence –coherence.

17. © Cambridge University Press 2011 1 Evidence Is there any supporting evidence? The fact that you cannot prove something is not true does not show that it is true. Thinking that it does make it true = argument ad ignorantiam. Confirmation bias: people often only notice evidence that supports their beliefs.

18. © Cambridge University Press 2011 2 Coherence Does the claim contradict current understanding? The more it contradicts, the stronger the evidence needed to support it. Carl Sagan (astronomer, 1934–96): ‘Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence.’

19. © Cambridge University Press 2011 Does it really matter what we believe? Socrates (470–399 BCE): ‘The unexamined life is not worth living.’ van de Lagemaat (Coursebook author): ‘If you never examine your beliefs you end up leading a life that is not genuinely your own.’ Voltaire (philosopher, 1694–1778): ‘People who believe absurdities will commit atrocities.’ (Question the ‘will’!) Beliefs affect actions and can have serious consequences.

20. © Cambridge University Press 2011 Conclusion A problem of knowledge (knowledge issues) exists. What we believe we know may be questionable.