1. Cross-Border Infrastructure: A Toolkit Historical Perspective on Private Sector in Infrastructure Session on Private Sector Participation Yong Hee Kong PPP Resource & Research Centre, Kuala Lumpur The views expressed here are those of the presenter and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the Asian Development Bank (ADB), or its Board of Directors, or the governments they represent.

2. Cross-Border Infrastructure: A Toolkit Private Sector Participation Is Not New Many PSP even in ancient times - harbours, public markets, public baths Book 50 of Digeste (published AD 530) - existence of concession laws Disappeared 5th century with fall of Roman Empire Reappeared Middle Ages - construction of fortified towns (France) 16th and 17th century, sovereigns conceded public works to private investors

3. Cross-Border Infrastructure: A Toolkit Private Sector Participation ( continued ) Works included riverbeds, canal constructions and concessions (Oxford Canal 1791), road paving, waste collection, public lighting, mail distribution, public transportation Concessions took off in 19th century - railroads, urban services 20th century - trend reversed due to wars. State-owned companies took over to avoid long-term contracts. Reversal (again) in last 15 years (Session 4.3)

4. Cross-Border Infrastructure: A Toolkit Shifts Between Public and PSP in the USA USA saw the see-sawing of shifts between the public and PSP. Main reasons:  Judgments of political leaders  Rise of environmental concerns  Changing ideas concerning role of the state in society (e.g. nationalization of electric utilities after World War II due to national security concerns)

5. Cross-Border Infrastructure: A Toolkit USA Roads and Streets Initially driven by the desire to increase the property values and road access. State issued land grants to private turnpike companies to ‘subsidise’ their costs in addition to the tolls collected Private turnpike companies flourished early 19th century 1930s and 1940s - States took over role, using fuel, road, etc. taxes and charged tolls Inner city roads mainly public-owned due to sensitivity of public to user-charged systems

6. Cross-Border Infrastructure: A Toolkit USA Roads and Streets ( continued ) Residential neighbourhoods - generally, private sector builds and hand over to public to maintain (except for gated communities) Others - privately-owned (commercial districts, malls, residential) - better control over development

7. Cross-Border Infrastructure: A Toolkit USA - Sewerage Originally, privately owned By 1820s, state had some control over periodic emptying of vaults or tanks By late 19th century, effective sewerage systems owned by municipals (80%), funded through general taxes Some treatment plants were contracted out for periods of time (e.g. 25 years)

8. Cross-Border Infrastructure: A Toolkit USA - Urban Mass Transport In early days, costs were recovered through user fees and increase in property values by private owners Electrification, technology and capital intensive investment - back to public-owned Rise of the automobile and fare restrictions - decline of private-ownerships Niche market - express bus services

9. Cross-Border Infrastructure: A Toolkit USA - Water Works Initially privately-owned and operated dominated By 1896, only 9 out of 50 city facilities were privately- owned As of 1989, 75% of USA served by public waters Most privately owned facilities are small, except for some suburban New Jersey areas

10. Cross-Border Infrastructure: A Toolkit USA - Electric Utilities This service has always been funded by user fees Mainly privately-owned, government played regulator role In early low-tech years, barriers to entry were low New legislation allows regulator to order access to transmission for new entrants (IPPs), and to buy from small existing IPPs

11. Cross-Border Infrastructure: A Toolkit USA - Telephones From the beginning till 1984, dominated by a single company (AT&T) Many anti-trust suits against AT&T Long-distance monopoly opened to competition Technology is the prime change driver

12. Cross-Border Infrastructure: A Toolkit UK and France - Comparatives UK - Water  1945 Act amalgamated to 187 systems  1973 Act reduced them to 10 regional water bodies  Privatised through flotation on the London Stock Exchange (LSE)  Regulated by Water Services Regulation Authority (OFWAT) France - Water  Public-owned, private-operated contract

13. Cross-Border Infrastructure: A Toolkit UK - Electricity Public-owned companies merged into 2 generating companies and floated on LSE IPPs allowed entry Government saw the need to preserve the national transmission grid - used pooling system Regulated by DG of Electricity Supply

14. Cross-Border Infrastructure: A Toolkit Conclusion The choice of public/private ownerships are shaped by various factors including: political actors, public perception, national interests/security, and environmental considerations Commonalities in private ownerships  Lack of direct competition, capital intensive  Long tenure - incumbent advantages