1. Measurement and Significant Figures

2. Steps in the Scientific Method
1. Pose problem; Make Observations
- quantitative (numerical) Ex: length, height, mass. Benefits: non-biased
- qualitative (descriptive) Ex: color, smell, taste. Drawback: biased (opinion)
2. Formulating hypotheses
- possible explanation for the observation
3. Performing experiments
- gathering new information to decide
whether the hypothesis is valid

3. Outcomes Over the Long-Term
Theory (Model)
- A set of tested hypotheses that give an overall explanation of some natural phenomenon.
Natural Law
- The same observation applies to many different systems

4. A law summarizes what happens
Law vs. Theory
A law summarizes what happens
A theory (model) is an attempt to explain why it happens.
Einstein's theory of gravity describes gravitational forces in terms of the curvature of spacetime caused by the presence of mass

5. Nature of Measurement Part 2 - scale (unit)
A measurement is a quantitative observation consisting of 2 parts:
Part 1 - number
Part 2 - scale (unit)
Examples:
20 grams
6.63 x Joule·seconds

6. The Fundamental SI Units (le Système International, SI)

7. SI Units

8. Derived Units
A derived unit is calculated by doing some mathematical operation. For Example:
Volume = L x w x h Ex: m3 or cm3
Volume is a 3-dimensional measurement that measures how much space an object occupies
A common volume measurement used in Chemistry is the Liter (L) and/or the milliliter (ml)
Area = L x w Ex: m2

9. Celsius & Kelvin

10. SI Prefixes Common to Chemistry

11. Uncertainty in Measurement
A digit that must be estimated is called uncertain. A measurement always has some degree of uncertainty.
Measurements are performed with
instruments
No instrument can read to an infinite number of decimal places

12. Precision and Accuracy
Accuracy refers to the agreement of a particular value with the true value.
Precision refers to the degree of agreement among several measurements made in the same manner.
Neither accurate nor precise
Precise but not accurate
Precise AND accurate

13. Types of Error Percent Error:
The percent error indicates how far off an observed result (collected data) is from the actual value. If a mass of 15.4 is obtained from a lab scale and the actual value should have been 20.0g, the percent error is calculated as:
%error = /observed – expected/ x or /15.4 g – 20.0g/ x 100 = 23%
expected g
Absolute Error or “Error Digit” Every measurement in the laboratory comes with some uncertainty. The uncertain digit is always the rightmost digit, or the last digit in the measurement. When using a device such as a graduated cylinder or metric ruler, the actual measurement may fall between two graduation marks on the device. Therefore, the last number is estimated and is “uncertain.” The measurement lies between the graduations and is written as +/- the distance of the graduated unit. For Example:
The reading on the
graduated cylinder below The reading in this beaker
would be recorded as: is 48 ml +/- 10 ml ml +/- 1 ml where the 8 is estimated
The 2 is estimated

14. Examples of Absolute Error in readings that come from a measuring device such as a scale, graduated cylinder or ruler.
A scale that gave the reading: g.
The error is +/ g (the smallest reading on the scale
A reading from a graduated cylinder that reads 45.67ml has a error of +/ ml, or the smallest reading from the device.
A length measurement from a device that reads m has an error of +/ m, or the smallest reading from the device.

15. Rules for Counting Significant Figures - Details
Nonzero integers always count as significant figures.
3456 has
4 sig figs.

16. Rules for Counting Significant Figures - Details
Zeros
- Leading zeros do not count as significant figures.
has
3 sig figs.

17. Rules for Counting Significant Figures - Details
Zeros
- Captive zeros always count as significant figures.
16.07 has
4 sig figs.

18. Rules for Counting Significant Figures - Details
Zeros
Trailing zeros are significant only if the number contains a decimal point.
9.300 has
4 sig figs.

19. Rules for Counting Significant Figures - Details
Exact numbers have an infinite number of significant figures.
1 inch = cm, exactly

20. Sig Fig Practice #1 1.0070 m  5 sig figs 17.10 kg  4 sig figs
How many significant figures in each of the following?
m 
5 sig figs
17.10 kg 
4 sig figs
100,890 L 
5 sig figs
3.29 x 103 s 
3 sig figs
cm 
2 sig figs
3,200,000 
2 sig figs

21. Rules for Significant Figures in Mathematical Operations
Multiplication and Division:
# sig figs in the result equals the number in the least precise measurement used in the calculation.
6.38 x 2.0 =
12.76  13 (2 sig figs)

22. Sig Fig Practice #2 Calculation Calculator says: Answer 3.24 m x 7.0 m
100.0 g ÷ 23.7 cm3
g/cm3
4.22 g/cm3
0.02 cm x cm
cm2
0.05 cm2
710 m ÷ 3.0 s
m/s
240 m/s
lb x 3.23 ft
lb·ft
5870 lb·ft
1.030 g ÷ 2.87 mL
g/mL
2.96 g/mL

23. Rules for Significant Figures in Mathematical Operations
Addition and Subtraction: The number of decimal places in the result equals the number of decimal places in the least precise measurement. =
 18.7 (3 sig figs)

24. Sig Fig Practice #3 Calculation Calculator says: Answer 3.24 m + 7.0 m
100.0 g g
76.27 g
76.3 g
0.02 cm cm
2.391 cm
2.39 cm
713.1 L L L
709.2 L
lb lb lb lb
2.030 mL mL
0.16 mL
0.160 mL